THE ANSWER to Ancient Calendars & Mayan Timeline Encodings Of The Calendars-BERMANSEDER & SCHWENGER

THE ANCIENT BORNA CALENDAR & NAMORATUNGA - AFRICA

Ancient African Skies
by Laurance R. Doyle, The SETI Institute | April 07, 2005 07:07am ET

"Bwana! That must be it!" I pointed back over my right shoulder at some man-sized stone pillars off on a rise from the dirt road we were driving on. The road would be described by Kenyans as "corrugated" meaning that we had to get out in some places to look for it on our way to the Turkana region--not too far from where the most ancient hominid fossils had been found by Richard Leakey, Director of the National Museums. We had heard of an ancient astronomy site in this region made up of basalt pillars that were magnetic, so needed to be remeasured using something other than compasses. Eddie Frank, of the Tusker Trail Company, some students from various places in the U.S., and I had come to do just that. We had camped with hippos at Lake Nivasha, swum in Lake Turkana known to have over 3 million crocodiles in it, watched as several million pink flamingos had taken to the air around Lake Nakuru, and seen the migration of a couple million wildebeests across the Masaai Mara plains, all on our roundabout safari to this ancient astronomy site.

The pillars were known as "Namoratunga" or "stone people" in the Turkana language. They had been said to have been built for an astronomical purpose, to reckon the Borana calendar, and were reputed to be a couple of thousand years old. They had petroglyphs on them, some matching the ancient property symbols of the Kush, a people of the Sudan who had once conquered Egypt (in the 8th Century B.C.) and whose language has yet to be deciphered. From maps of ancient Kush, I knew that the front of almost all their pyramids appeared to face the star Sirius, which has not changed its position in the sky very much for the last several thousand years.

We had a description of the Borana calendar, but this did not make astronomical sense. For example, the new year of the Borana calendar was said to occur when the star beta Triangulum was "in conjunction" with the new moon (new, give or take a couple of days). A new moon is, of course, close to the sun (i.e., a thin crescent), and consequently found in the twilight sky. However, the star beta Triangulum is a 3rd magnitude star and could not been seen in twilight. Thus, we could not even get the Borana new year started according to the description we had from anthropologists.

We made camp under some acacia trees and the next day tramped over to the ancient site. It was obvious that the stone pillar had been polished by the wind over a long time. We used navigational sextants to measure the angles between each pillar from the others, and a measuring strip to map the interdistances between them. The day was blessedly cloudy--the first such day in the Turkana desert we had seen. We sketched the petroglyphs on each of the pillars as well. And Matunga, our cook, brought us all lunch at the site with some very good Kenyan tea.

Sitting among the pillars it occurred to me that perhaps the translation of the word "conjunction" might have been incorrect. What had been taken to mean "rising with" on the same place on the horizon, might instead mean "rising single-file after." Humm, that could account for having pillars also line up with the stars and the moon. There are seven special Borana calendar stars that define six places in the sky. The Borana calendar stars are: beta Triangulum, Pleiades, Aldebaran, Bellatrix, central Orion and the star Saiph taken together, and Sirius. Well if the single file idea was correct, then at the beginning of the Borana year the star beta Triangulum would rise--mark the place with a pillar, for example--and then at dawn, the new moon would rise in the same location on the horizon. (We were at 3.4 degrees north latitude, so the stars there rise almost vertically--actually 3.4 degrees off the vertical to be exact.) However, this vertical single-file "conjunction" also would not work because (here very close to the equator) the star beta Triangulum was rising about 35 degrees north of east but the farthest north the moon ever got (in its 18.6-year cycle called "regression of the lunar nodes") was 28.5 degrees north of east. So, again, the calendar could not even get started. What kind of a calendar was this, I thought? When we had met with the scientists at the National Museums of Kenya they also did not know how the calendar worked. Yet the Borana are practical people; they would not have made up an apparently ancient calendar that didn't work.

Ah, ancient! I knew that while the star Sirius had not moved much, many of the stars had altered their apparent position on the sky (this "precession" is due to the wobble of the Earth's rotation axis over a complete circle on the sky every 26,000 years). During the time the first pyramids in Egypt were built, the North Star was not Polaris in the Little Dipper, but Thuban, in the constellation of Draco the Dragon. This is where several openings in the great pyramids were aligned. The Namoratunga site was said to possibly be as old as 300 B.C. based on some carbon dating of bones. We precessed the Borana stars then back to 300 B.C., and some "moved" quite a bit. But where was beta Triangulum in 300 B.C.? Before I answer that question, let's take a quick look at how, actually, the Borana calendar is supposed to work.

There are no weeks in the Borana calendar (our 7-day week only comes from the seven ancient planets that appeared to circle the Earth--Sun, Saturn, Moon, then in English a switch to Norse gods--Oden, Thor, and so on). The Borana have 27 day names, and 12 (lunar) month names. The first day of the new year starts on the day name "Bitto Tessa" on the month "Bito Kara." (This is when Triangulum is in "conjunction" with the new moon.) One then simply counts the day names through the month based on that first astronomical observation--conjunction of the new moon at the beta Triangulum position. The description continues; one will know that the next month begins when the new moon is "in conjunction" with the next star or star system, in this case, Pleiades (a blue star cluster). This occurs 29.5 days after the start of the first month. That means that one runs out of day names a couple of days early. This is OK, and the names of the days that started the month are also the names of the days that finish the month. (This is the same for all the months, adjusted for the observations, of course, allowing a variation of a day or two here and there based on the astronomical observation.)

The third month starts when one spots the new moon rising "in conjunction with" the star Aldebaran, and so on down the list of six Borana star positions for the first six months. Why does this work? It is because the "sidereal month" (time for the moon to move from a certain star position back to that position again--27.3 days) is not the same as the "synodic month" or the time it takes the moon to go from a particular phase (full-moon to full-moon phase, for example) back to that phase again (29.5 days). The synodic month is longer because the Earth has orbited the Sun just a bit also in a months time and the moon has had to (sort of) "catch up." That is, when the moon arrives at the same place again (star position), the Earth has moved a bit farther and so to align with on the exact opposite side of the Earth from the Sun (same lunar phase again) the moon has to travel a bit farther. (Try this if you like with three people, one the moon, one the Earth, and one the Sun, with the Sun shining a light onto the others they move around the Sun and Earth, respectively; see what happens.)

So, back to the 300 B.C. positions of the stars--would the calendar work if we put the stars back to the same time as the pillars were expected to have been put there? Indeed, the second new moon rose at the exact place where Pleiades used to rise in 300 B.C.! An exciting moment! The next new moon? It rose at the 300 B.C. position of Aldebaran! The next? Bellatrix! The next? In between central Orion and the star Saiph! And finally the 6th new moon of the year rose where the star Sirius rose (and still rises) on the horizon! It worked in 300 B.C.!

Well, it looked as if we had deciphered an ancient calendar! The next six months of the year are defined by a switch of the moving parts. Instead of the horizon location changing, the next six months are defined by the various phases of the moon rising at the Triangulum only position (and therefore one can only check the calendar in the middle of the month). But this all worked too. One goes through the full moon, three-quarter (gibbous) waning moon, quarter waning moon, large crescent waning, medium crescent waning, and finally small crescent waning--all rising at the Triangulum position--until one is back to the new moon at the Triangulum position again and Happy New Year! (The exception is that every three years another month is added because the lunar year is 11 days short of the solar year--this is a kind of "leap month" the Borana folks use.)

So what about the 19 stone pillars that make up Namourantunga--are they indeed used for the ancient Borana calendar? We found that they made 25 alignments with the seven positions on the sky of the ancient Borana stars or star systems. After some calculations, we found that this many alignments could only have occurred randomly about 43 times out of 10,000 random star positions (counting the alignments with the pillars generated randomly by computer, and doing this test of randomly made-up star position 10,000 times for good measure). In other words, we found also that the pillars at Namoratunga--to have made as many as 25 or more alignments with the seven specific ancient positions of the Borana stars-- would only occur randomly 0.43% of the time. From this mathematical experiment we could be about 99.57% sure that the pillars at Namouratuna had been build to do just that--line up with the Borana calendar star positions for 300 B.C.! And the petroglyphs on the pillars? The Turkana said they were ancient family names. This was interesting too, because a lot of them match the symbols on the pyramids of the ancient Kush people--symbols said to be royal property symbols. Perhaps the Kush also got as far south as they did north in ancient times. And perhaps petroglyphs might be a way (besides linguistics and genetics) to trace the migrations of ancient peoples.

As we began the long drive back to Nairobi I felt a quiet excitement. We had discovered a way of keeping time and one of the ways of thinking of some of the ancient African astronomers who had lived in the Turkana desert over two thousand years before. They looked at the sky and understood how it worked and, with the stars and moon as intermediaries, we had shared this special order with them across the millennia. We had read the same book of the sky together, and the practice of timekeeping that so often seems to separate us had, instead, this time brought us closer together.

Note: You can read a more detailed description of the Borana Calendar and Namoratunga at: http://www.tusker.com/Archaeo/articles.htm.

http://www.space.com/935-ancient-african-skies.html

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Namoratunga is an archaeoastronomical site on the west side of Lake Turkana in Kenya, believed to have been founded around 300 BC. It is easily visible on the Lodwar – Kalokol roadside, 20 meters from the road. Namoratunga II (3°25′22″N 35°48′10″E) contains 19 basalt pillars, aligned with 7 star systems: Triangulum, Pleiades, Bellatrix, Aldebaran, Central Orion, Saiph, and Sirius. Namoratunga means "people of stone" in the Turkana language. Mark Lynch and L.H. Robbins discovered the site in 1978. Lynch believes the basalt pillars tie the constellations or stars to the 12-month 354-day lunar calendar of Cushitic speakers of southern Ethiopia. The pillars align with the movements of the 7 constellations corresponding to a 354-day calendar. The pillars are surrounded by a circular formation of stones. One grave with a pillar on top exists in the area. Namoratunga I (2°23′0.04″N 36°8′2.52″E)^[1] contains a similar grave but no pillars.^[2][3]

See also

• Borana calendar

References

1. Kubiak, M. (1982), "Eclipse at Namoratunga", The Observatory, vol. 102, p. 211.
2. Helaine, Seline (1997), Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (Springer), p. 755. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9
3. Krupp, Edwin C. (2003), Echoes of the Ancient Skies: The Astronomy of Lost Civilizations (Dover), pp. 170–172. ISBN 978-0-486-42882-6

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namoratunga

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The Borana calendar consist of 29.5 days and 12 months for a total 354 days in a year. It has no weeks. It is a lunar and stellar calendar.^[1]

It is believed that the Borana of developed their own calendar around 300 BC. The Borana calendar is a lunar-stellar calendrical system, relying on astronomical observations of the moon in conjunction with seven particular stars or constellations. Borana Months (Stars/Lunar Phases) are Bittottessa (Triangulum), Camsa (Pleiades), Bufa (Aldebaran), Waxabajjii (Belletrix), Obora Gudda (Central Orion-Saiph), Obora Dikka (Sirius), Birra (full moon), Cikawa (gibbous moon), Sadasaa (quarter moon), Abrasa (large crescent), Ammaji (medium crescent), and Gurrandala (small crescent).^[1]
Days

1. Bita Kara
2. Gardaduma
3. Bita Lama
4. Sonsa
5. Sorsa
6. Rurruma
7. Algajima
8. Lumasa
9. Arb
10. Gidada
11. Walla
12. Ruda
13. Basa Dura
14. Areri Dura
15. Basa Ballo
16. Areri Ballo
17. Carra
18. Adula Dura
19. Maganatti Jarra
20. Adula Ballo
21. Maganatti Britti
22. Garba Dura
23. Salban Dura
24. Garba Balla
25. Salban Balla
26. Garda Dullacha
27. Salban Dullacha

(first two or three days are repeated during the months)
Months can be identified by moon phase in relation to seven stars or star groups. They are Triangulum, Pleiades, Aldebaran, Bellatrix, central Orion, Saiph, and Sirius star systems.
Months and Star System

1. Bittottessa-Triangulum
2. Camsa-Pleiades
3. Bufa-Aldebaran
4. Wacabajjii-Belletrix
5. Obora Gudda-Central Orion-Saiph
6. Obora Dikka-Sirius
7. Birra-full moon
8. Cikawa-gibbous moon
9. Sadasaa-quarter moon
10. Abrasa-large crescent
11. Ammaji-medium crescent
12. Gurrandala-small crescent

References

1. Doyle, Laurance R. The Borana Calendar REINTERPRETED. Current Anthropology. Physics and Astronomy Department, University of California, Santa Cruz, at NASA Ames Research Center, Space Sciences Division, M.S., retrieved: 7 April 2010.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borana_calendar

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Oromo Calendar

Time is a very important concept in Gadaa and in Oromo life. Gadaa itself can be narrowly defined as a given set of time (period) which groups of individuals perform specific duties in a society. Gadaa could also mean age. The lives of individuals, rituals, ceremonies, political and economic activities are scheduled rather precisely. For this purpose, the Oromo have a calendar. The calendar is also used for weather forecasting and divination purposes.

​

The Oromo calendar is based on astronomical observations of the moon in conjunction with seven or eight particular stars or star groups (Legesse, 1973 and Bassi, 1988) called Urji Dhaha (guiding stars). According to this calendar system, there are approximately 30 days in a month and 12 months in a year. The first day of a month is the day the new moon appears. A day (24 hours) starts and ends at sunrise.

In the Oromo calendar each day of the month and each month of the year has a name. Instead of the expected 29 or 30 names for days of a month, there are only 27 names. These 27 days of the month are permutated through the twelve months, in such a way that the beginning of each month moves forward by 2 or 3 days. The loss per month is then the difference between the 27-day month and the 30-day month, (Legesse, 1973). One interesting observation is that, as illustrated in the computing of time like in the Oromo calendar, Oromos visualization of events is cyclical just as many events in nature are cyclical.

Since each day (called ayyaana) of a month has a name, the Oromo traditionally had no use for names of the days of a week. Perhaps it is because of this that today in different parts of Oromia different names are in use for the days of a week.

Each of the 27 days (ayyaana) of the month has special meaning and connotation to the Oromo time-keeping experts, called ayyaantu. Ayyaantu can tell the day, the month, the year and the Gadaa period by keeping track of time astronomically. They are experts, in astronomy and supplement their memory of things by examining the relative position of eight stars or star groups, (Bassi, 1988) and the moon to determine the day (ayyaana) and the month. On the basis of astronomical observations, they make an adjustment in the day name every two or three months.

The pillars found a few years ago in north-western Kenya by Lynch and Robbins (1978) has been suggested to represent a site used to develop the Oromo calendar system. According to these researchers, it is the first archaeo-astronomical evidence in sub-Saharan Africa. Doyle (1986) has suggested 300 B.C. as the approximate date of its invention.

According to Asmarom Legesse (1973), "The Oromo calendar is a great and unique invention and has been recorded only in a very few cultures in history of mankind." The only other known cultures with this type of time-keeping are the Chinese, Mayans and Hindus. Legesse states that the Oromo are unusual in that they seem to be the only people with a reasonably accurate calendar which ignore the sun.

http://www.gadaa.com/oromocalendar.html

 

MEDICINE WHEELS are 28 day lunar calendars

Medicine wheels are 28 day lunar calendars, as, well as solar calendars
~ each spoke represents a day within the lunar cycle
~ there are six (6) spokes within the solar cycle that extend beyond the circle
and, they can be aligned to the sunrise, on the first day of each of The Six (6) Season Calendar Months
known as: Winter, Spring, Break-up, Summer, Fall, and, Freeze-up Seasons.
The Six (6) Season Calendar aka The Ancient Year (360) aka The Thirteen (13) Moon Calendar
- is defined by a start date on the last full moon of December, each and every year - which begins The Winter Cycle
flowing through The Spring cycle, The Break-up Cycle, The Summer Cycle, The Fall Cycle, and, The Freeze-up Cycle.
It can also be aligned to a Six (6) Event Calendar
where it aligns 4 seasons (winter, spring, summer, fall, and,
runs through the yearly dates of both The Equinox & The Solstice
~ Susan Lynne Schwenger



Medicine Wheel, A Native American Sacred Site and National Historic Landmark in Wyoming - 213 feet
Source of Photograph: Source= http://www.fs.fed.us/r2/bighorn/ |Date= |Author= U.S. Forest Service Photo |Permission= {{PD-USGov-USDA-FS

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The Bighorn Medicine Wheel predates the Indian tribes in the region and is thought to be about 700 years old.

Members of the Crow tribe, who have long used the Medicine Wheel for rituals, ascribe its creation to a boy named Burnt Face. According to the story, the boy fell into the fire as a baby and was severely scarred.

When Burnt Face reached his teen years, he went on a vision quest in the mountains, where he fasted and built the medicine wheel. During his quest, he helped drive away an animal who attacked baby eaglets. In return, he was carried off by an eagle and his face was made smooth.

For centuries, the Bighorn Medicine Wheel has been used by Crow youth for fasting and vision quests. Native Americans also go to Bighorn to offer thanks for the creation that sustains them, placing a buffalo skull on the center cairn as a prayer offering. Prayers are offering here for healing, and atonement is made for harm done to others and to Mother Earth.

A number of great chiefs, including Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce, have come to the Bighorn Medicine Wheel to pray for wisdom and guidance to lead their people in the transition from freedom to reservation life. The medicine wheel was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969.
~ Listry Dakota

http://www.sacred-destinations.com/usa/bighorn-medicine-wheel

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http://www.astromark.us/medicine.htm

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Ojibwe Indian stone medicine wheel
Key to stone medicine wheel:

1. Creator - Center of life, the Medicine Wheel itself.
2. Earth Mother - Gives us our home, and lives.
3. Father Sun - Warms life, source of energy and light.
4. Grandmother Moon - Guides dreams and visions.
5. Turtle Clan - The element of earth. Growth and life.
6. Frog Clan - The element of water. Cleansing.
7. Thunderbird Clan - The element of fire. Energy.
8. Butterfly Clan - The element of air. Transformation.
9. The North - Knowledge and wisdom.
10. The East - Daybreak, Illumination. Spirit.
11. The South - Youth and innocence. Emotion.
12. The West - Introspection, Looks within.
13. Snow Goose – Direction.
14. Otter - Balanced female energy.
15. Cougar - Leadership without insisting.
16. Red Hawk - Observant. Messengers of the Gods.
17. Beaver - Builder and do-er.
18. Deer - Power and gentleness.
19. Flicker – Music.
20. Sturgeon - Moving through life, swimming.
21. Brown Bear - Sweetness of truth.
22. Raven - Keeper of Sacred law.
23. Snake - Power of creation. Transmutation.
24. Elk - Stamina. To go the distance.
25. Cleansing - To make clean. Purify
26. Renewal - To begin again.
27. Purity - Clean and innocent.
28. Clarity - Unclouded. Free from darkness.
29. Love - To delight in a higher state of appreciation.
30. Wisdom - Knowledge and sense. Intelligence and foresight.
31. Illumination - To enlighten. Cast light upon.
32. Growth - To become. To change from one state to another. To advance.
33. Trust - To place confidence in the reliance on the integrity and friendship of another.
34. Experience - Knowledge and understanding
35. Introspection - To look inside.
36. Strength - Power and vigor of mind.

Courtesy Cedar Tree Institute, Marquette, Michigan

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nativevoices...heel/images/ob1420.html?tribe=Ojibwe/Chippewa

 

ANCIENT CHINESE & HINDI CALENDARS - 60 YEAR CYCLE - Start on The Full Moon + Chinese 60 year astrology - Susan Lynne Schwenger & Tony Bermanseder


The Hindu calendar, always has a month start with a full moon and it ends with the next full moon.

The Chinese Lunar Calendar, always has a month start with a new moon and it ends with the next new moon.

The first new moon in 2011, is 04 Jan 2011, and, The first full moon in 2011, is 19 Jan 2011 ~ 9:22 PM (21:22 hours)UTC

The Chinese New Year 2011 - The Year of The "White" Metal Hare (aka Rabbit) 辛卯 and, it starts on 3rd February, 2011, which marks a 'new' moon, along with, the beginning of The Chinese New Year of 2011.

This is, the 3rd earth branch year of 10 branches and, it, the 7th heavenly stem of 12 stems

This is, termed The Hsin Mao, and, 2011, it is the twenty-eighth (28th) cycle in The Sixty (60) Year of Cycles.

The Chinese utilise Earth Branches, along with Heavenly Stems within The 60 Year Cycle.

2011 - The Hsin Mao 28/60 will symbolize prudence, which is, the characteristic tied to eXercsing sound judgement in practical affairs, and, it is, traditionally considered to be a virtue.

The old ancients, saw this, as:

Chastity-Castilas or Purity of Knowledge, Honesty, & Wisdom,
Temperance-Temperantia Self Control of Abstention, Honour, & Justice,
Charity-Caritas Will of benevolence, generosity, & Sacrifice,
Diligence-Industria, Persistence of effort, ethics, & Rectitude,
Patience-Patientia, Peace of ahimsa, mercy, sufferance,
Kindness-Humanitas, Satisfaction of compassion, integrity, and, loyalty,
Humility~Humilitas Bravery of Altruism, modesty, & Reverence

The word comes from The old french word "prudence" from the 13th century, and, its root in Latin is prudentia (related to foresight, and, sagacity), This year, is going to be, all about attaining the ability to judge between virtuous and vicious actions, NOT only in the general sense, but, also with regard to operating by taking appropriate actions at a given time, or a given place. It is a time, for many, to take action, that is courageous, as opposed to acting reckless, or being cowardly in your actions, For this reason, this year is going to start/and, finish with a set of cardinal (pivotal) virtues. "Good work, is good work", and, it is a time, for brothers/and, for sisters, to aid, and, to assist, and, to help others. It is a time, to take risks, and, to speak out, so, others, might learn, how to eXchange, and, how to become better eXchangers...

2011, is The Year of The Start of The Grand eXchanges, so, resolve to be, the best eXchanger, that you can be. Aristotle, in The Nicomachean Ethics, gives a very lengthy account of The Virtue of PHROESIS (Greek: ϕρονησιϛ), which has traditionally been translated as "prudence", although this has become increasingly problematic as the word has fallen out of common usage. More recently ϕρονησιϛ has been translated by such terms as "PRACTICAL WISDOM", "PRACTICAL JUDGEMENT", or 'RATIONAL CHOICE" ~ Remember all is choice !!! And, all choices, lead to a different set of consequences. If you do NOT love your consequences, simply start a process to change your choices. 2011, brings forth a new type of eXchange, along with eXchanges, and, if woven, in ways, that you give more, than you receive both sides of any equation, will gain abundance and, enter into The Process of "much gathers more". The year of The White Metal Hare / Rabbit, is all about expressing your feelings through your lower, and, higher heart(s), along with, expressing your thoughts, through your lower, and, higher mind/(s)...

Quite simply put, you make it all happen, by "your deeds". The Study of Chinese Magic, and, Magical Arts, has always placed Astrology, as, one of the most important. There are 12 animal signs, and, has always, and, in all ways greatly influenced the lives of The Chinese, and, other people, who have chosen to study, its merits. It is based NOT only upon The Philosophical, but also The Mathematical conception of existence. The Chinese invented The System known as: Jikkan Junishi ~ which relates to 10 stems, as, well as, 12 Branches These Ten (10) Heavenly Stems are related to The Yin-Yang Principles, and, the elements of Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal and Water. These Twelve (12) earthly branches are related to The Twelve (12) Animals:

The Rat,
The Ox,
The Tiger,
The Hare/Rabbit,
The Dragon,
The Snake,
The Horse,
The Sheep,
The Monkey,
The Rooster,
The Dog,
and,
The Wild Boar/Pig,

along with:

The Ten (10) Stems, and, The Twelve (12) Heavenly Branches, they are combined, to create: A cycle of Sixty (60) Two (2) Symbol Combinations. ie; 1958 - was The Year of The Golden Earth Dog The previous year for this was 1898, and, the next year, for Golden Earth Dogs, will be 2018. (-60, +60) This Complex Calendar of The Chinese is known as: The Sexagenarian Cycle.

Typically the calendar is depicted in a line, BUT when written out in a circle, the symbols are also used to note the time of day and directions.

(insert chart of hours of the day)

The Year of The Rat was:
1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996, 2008
The Year of The Ox was:
1925, 1937, 1949, 1961, 1973, 1985, 1997, 2009

The Year of The Tiger was:
1926, 1938, 1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998, 2010

The Year of The Hare/Rabbit was:
1927, 1939, 1951, 1963, 1975, 1987, 1999, 2011

The Year of The Dragon was:
1916, 1928, 1940, 1952, 1964, 1976, 1988, 2000

The Year of The Snake was:
1917, 1929, 1941, 1953, 1965, 1977, 1989, 2001

The Year of The Horse was:
1918, 1930, 1942, 1954,1966, 1978, 1990, 2002, 2014

The Year of The Ram was:
1919, 1931, 1943, 1955, 1967, 1979, 1991, 2003, 2015

The Year of The Monkey was:
1920, 1932, 1944, 1956, 1968, 1980, 1992, 2004, 2016

The Year of The Rooster was:
1921, 1933, 1945, 1957, 1969, 1981, 1993, 2005, 2017

The Year of The Dog was:
1922, 1934, 1946, 1958, 1970, 1982, 1994, 2006, 2018

The Year of The Pig was:
1923, 1935, 1947, 1959, 1971, 1983, 1995, 2007, 2019

The Chinese Lunar Calendar, along with the animal signs are based on a Twelve (12) Year Cycle, used for dating the years. They represent a Cyclical Concept of Time, rather than, the Western Linear Concept of Time.

The importance of The Chinese Lunar Calendar, is, that it is based upon The Cycles of The Moon, and, thus, are constructed in a different way, than, that of a WESTERN SOLAR CALENDAR.

The Chinese calendar, has The Beginning of The Year falling somewhere between Late January, and, Early Februrary.

The lunar year has Twelve (12) moons and each moon lasts for just over 29.5 or Twenty-nine and a half days.

In order to make the days in each moon full days, there are Six (6) 'small' months which have Twenty-nine (29) Days each and Six (6) 'larger' months which have Thirty (30) Days each, making for a total of 354 days, eleven days short of the solar calendar. Occasionally the length of the Chinese years changes and there may be either Seven (7) 'small' months (a total of 353 days), or sometimes Seven (7) 'large' months (a total of 355 days). As each year passes, The Lunar Calendar usually falls short of the solar year by ten to twelve days, so in order to bring the lunar calendar in line with the solar calendar an extra month is added at roughly three-year intervals. The Chinese have adopted the Western calendar since 1911, but The Lunar Calendar is still used for festive occasions such as the Chinese New Year or when Chinese horoscope is used. Many Chinese calendars will print both the solar dates and the Chinese lunar dates.

In the West, the years are dated from the birth of Jesus Christ, for example, 1977 means 1,977 years after the birth of Christ.

This represents a linear perception of time, with time proceeding in a straight line from the past to the present and the future. In traditional China, dating methods were cyclical, cyclical meaning something that is repeated time after time according to a pattern.

A popular folk method which reflected this cyclical method of recording years are The Twelve (12) Animal Signs.

Every year is assigned an animal name or "sign" according to a repeating cycle:
Rat, Ox, Tiger, Hare/Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Sheep, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Boar/Pig.

Therefore, every twelve (12) years the same animal name or "sign" would reappear.

There is also a sixty-year cycle used in China.

This cycle is made by cooperation of astrological features known as Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches.

Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches are up to give sixty different combinations and these combinations form a sixty-year period.

They are also linked to days and hours, and to the twelve animals.

It means that your Heavenly Stem and Earthly Branch also influence your fortune and your temperament.

~ Susan Lynne Schwenger

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Chinese Astrology - RELATES to The signs and, The hours

It is The Divination of The Future from The Chinese calendar, with its Twelve (12) Cycle of The Animals - aka The Chinese Zodiac which reveals specific principle characteristics of the system: along with The Five (5) Elements of Thought, through calendrical cycles, which are based on Astronomy, as, well as, Ancient Chinese religion.

The Chinese Zodiac refers to a pure calendrical cycle: there are no equivalent constellations like for the occidental zodiac. Back in The Imperial Times, The Rulers employed Astrologers, who spent their time, watching The Sky, for heavenly omens, which would predict the future of the state; this practice was much different, than the practice of divination. The twelve (12) animals, along with five (5) elements, flow through 60 year cycles.

The Restless Mouse
Hours ruled by the Mouse : 11 p.m. to 1 a.m.
Direction of its sign : Directly North
Season and principle month : Winter - December
Corresponds to the Western sign : Sagittarius
Fixed element : Water
Stem : Positive

The Diligent Ox
Hours ruled by the Ox : 1 a.m. to 3 a.m.
Direction of its sign : North-Northeast
Season and principle month : Winter - January
Corresponds to the Western sign : Capricorn
Fixed element : Water
Stem : Negative

The Powerful Tiger
Hours ruled by the Tiger : 3 a.m. to 5 a.m.
Direction of its sign : East-Northeast
Season and principle month : Spring - February
Corresponds to the Western sign : Aquarius
Fixed element : Wood
Stem : Positive

The Delicate Rabbit (or hare)
Hours ruled by the Rabbit : 5 a.m. to 7 a.m.
Direction of its sign : Directly East
Season and principle month : Spring - March
Corresponds to the Western sign : Pisces
Fixed element : Wood
Stem : Negative

The Celestial Dragon
Hours ruled by the Dragon : 7 a.m. to 9 a.m.
Direction of its sign : East-Southeast
Season and principle month : Spring - April
Corresponds to the Western sign : Aries
Fixed element : Wood
Stem : Positive

The Diplomatic Snake
Hours ruled by the Snake : 9 a.m. to 11 a.m.
Direction of its sign : South - Southeast
Season and principle month : Spring - May
Corresponds to the Western sign : Taurus
Fixed element : Fire
Stem : Negative

The Productive Horse
Hours ruled by the Horse : 11 a.m. to 1 p.m.
Direction of its sign : Directly South
Season and principle month : Summer - June
Corresponds to the Western sign : Gemini
Fixed element : Fire
Stem : Positive

The Gentle Sheep (or goat or ram)
Hours ruled by the Sheep : 1 p.m. to 3 p.m.
Direction of its sign : South-Southwest
Season and principle month : Summer - July
Corresponds to the Western sign : Cancer
Fixed element : Fire
Stem : Negative

The Merry Monkey
Hours ruled by the Monkey : 3 p.m. to 5 p.m.
Direction of its sign : West-Southwest
Season and principle month : Summer - August
Corresponds to the Western sign : Leo
Fixed element : Metal
Stem : Positive

The Enthusiastic Rooster
Hours ruled by the Rooster : 5 p.m. to 7 p.m.
Direction of its sign : Directly West
Season and principle month : Fall - September
Corresponds to the Western sign : Virgo
Fixed element : Metal
Stem : Negative

The Dutiful Dog
Hours ruled by the Dog : 7 p.m. to 9 p.m.
Direction of its sign : West-Northwest
Season and principle month : Fall - October
Corresponds to the Western sign : Libra
Fixed element : Metal
Stem : Positive

The Chivalrous Pig (or boar)
Hours ruled by the Pig : 9 p.m. to 11 p.m.
Direction of its sign : North - Northwest
Season and principle month : Fall - November
Corresponds to the Western sign : Scorpio
Fixed element : Water
Stem : Negative

Many people do NOT realise the depth of The Chinese System and, believe, that only ONE singular animal, goes to a year, NOT so, as, also 'the hours" relate also to your chart. These yearly cycles represent what others perceive you as being: while a person might appear to be a Dragon they might actually be a Snake internally and an Ox secretively. Combined with these 5 elements, this will makes for 8640 combinations (5 elements, 12 animals, 12 months, 12 times of day). The inner animal is assigned by the month of birth

This dictates your love life, and also your inner persona, and, it is critical to a proper understanding of your compatibility with other signs

It may be considered what the individual wishes to become, or believes to be their true self. The secret animal is determined by exact time of birth and is your own true sign which your personality is based on.

It is important to compensate for daylight savings or any clock adjustment performed by your country, as it is mapped according to the sun's location and not the local time. These are said to be critical for the proper use of Chinese astrology.

Many Western displays of the Chinese zodiac omit these, as well as the elements, for easier consumption and understanding.

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Chinese Five Elements Diurnal Cycle 24 hour cycle of energy in the human body. waxing and waning of energy in each organ.
during the time of the living breath, and the time of the dead breath.diurnal and nocturnal actually.
in the microcosm and the macrocosm of universal eternity.

The Wu Xing, or the Five Movements, Five Phases or Five Steps/Stages, are chiefly an ancient mnemonic device, in many traditional Chinese fields. It is sometimes translated as Five Elements, but the Wu Xing are chiefly an ancient mnemonic device, hence the preferred translation of "movements", "phases" or "steps" over "elements". By the same token, Mu is thought of as "Tree" rather than "Wood".^[1]

The five elements are:

• Fire (Chinese: 火, pinyin: huǒ)
• Earth (Chinese: 土, pinyin: tǔ)
• Metal (Chinese: 金, pinyin: jīn)
• Water (Chinese: 水, pinyin: shuǐ)
• Wood (Chinese: 木, pinyin: mù)

The system of five phases was used for describing interactions and relationships between phenomena. It was employed as a device in many fields of early Chinese thought, including seemingly disparate fields such as geomancy or Feng shui, astrology, traditional Chinese medicine, music, military strategy and martial arts. The system is still used as a reference in some forms of complementary and alternative medicine and martial arts. Some^[who?] claim the original foundation of these are the concept of the Five Cardinal Points.

Contents 1 The Elements 2Cycles 2.1 Generating 2.2Overcoming 2.3 Insulting 3 Cosmology and feng shui 3.1 Ba gua 4 Chinese medicine 5 Celestial stem 6 Music 7 Martial arts 8 Tea ceremony 9 See also 10 Bibliography 11 Notes and references 12 External links

Cycles



The Interactions of Wu Xing: The creation cycle (black, circle shaped arrows) and the overcoming cycle (white, star shaped arrows).

The doctrine of five phases describes two cycles, a generating or creation (生, shēng) cycle, also known as "mother-son", and an overcoming or destruction (剋/克, kè) cycle, also known as "grandfather-nephew", of interactions between the phases.
Generating

The common memory jogs, which help to remind in what order the phases are:

• Wood feeds Fire;
• Fire creates Earth (ash);
• Earth bears Metal;
• Metal carries Water (as in a bucket or tap, or water condenses on metal);
• Water nourishes Wood.

Also:

• Wood absorbs Water;
• Water rusts Metal;
• Metal breaks up Earth;
• Earth smothers Fire;
• Fire burns Wood.

Other common words for this cycle include "begets", "engenders" and "mothers."
Overcoming

• Wood parts Earth (such as roots; or, Trees can prevent soil erosion);
• Earth absorbs (or muddies) Water (or Earth dam control the water);
• Water quenches Fire;
• Fire melts Metal;
• Metal chops Wood.

This cycle might also be called "controls", "restrains" or "fathers".

Cosmology and feng shui



Another illustration of the cycle.
Main article: Feng Shui

According to Wu Xing theory, the structure of the cosmos mirrors the five phases. Each phase has a complex series of associations with different aspects of nature, as can be seen in the following table. In the ancient Chinese form of geomancy known as Feng Shui practitioners all based their art and system on the five phases (Wu Xing). All of these phases are represented within the Ba gua. Associated with these phases are colors, seasons and shapes; all of which are interacting with each other.^[2]

Based on a particular directional energy flow from one phase to the next, the interaction can be expansive, destructive, or exhaustive. With proper knowledge of such aspect of energy flow will enable the Feng Shui practitioner to apply certain cures or rearrangement of energy in a way they believe to be beneficial for the receiver of the Feng Shui "Treatment."

Movement	Wood	Fire	Earth	Metal	Water
Color	Green	Red	Yellow	Purple	Blue
Shape	Rectangular	Triangle	Square	Round	Curve
Material	Wood, Plants, Flower	Fire, Light	Clay, Stone	Gold, Silver	Water, Mirror
Direction	east	south	center	west	north
Planet	Jupiter	Mars	Saturn	Venus	Mercury
Heavenly creature	Azure Dragon 青龍	Vermilion Bird 朱雀	Yellow Dragon 黃龍	White Tiger 白虎	Black Tortoise 玄武
Heavenly Stems	甲, 乙	丙, 丁	戊, 己	庚, 辛	壬, 癸
Phase	New Yang	Full Yang	Yin/Yang balance	New Yin	Full Yin
Energy	Generative	Expansive	Stabilizing	Contracting	Conserving
Season	Spring	Summer	Change of seasons (Every third month)	Autumn	Winter
Climate	Windy	Hot	Damp	Dry	Cold
Development	Sprouting	Blooming	Ripening	Withering	Dormant
Livestock	dog	sheep/goat	cattle	chicken	pig
Fruit	plum	apricot	jujube	peach	chestnut
Grain	wheat	beans	rice	hemp	millet

Ba gua

Main article: Ba gua
The movements have also been correlated to the eight trigrams of the I Ching:

Movement	Metal	Earth	Wood	Wood	Water	Fire	Earth	Metal
I Ching	Heaven	Earth	Thunder	Wind	Water	Fire	Mountain	Lake
Trigrams	☰ 乾 qián	☷ 坤 kūn	☳ 震 zhèn	☴ 巽 xùn	☵ 坎 kǎn	☲ 離 lí	☶ 艮 gèn	☱ 兌 duì

Chinese medicine



Five Chinese Elements - Diurnal Cycle
Main article: Traditional Chinese medicine

The interdependence of Zang Fu networks in the body was noted to be a circle of five things, and so mapped by the Chinese doctors onto the five phases. For instance, the Liver (Wood phase) is said to be the "mother" of the heart (Fire phase), and the Kidneys (Water phase) the mother of the Liver. The key observation was things like kidney deficiency affecting the function of the liver. In this case, the "mother" is weak, and cannot support the child. However, the Kidneys control the heart along the Ke cycle, so the Kidneys are said to restrain the heart. Many of these interactions can nowadays be linked to known physiological pathways (such as Kidney pH affecting heart activity).[citation needed]
The key thing to keep in mind with the Chinese medical application of the five elements is that it is only a model, and it is known to have exceptions.

The citation order of the Five Phases, i.e., the order in which they are cited in the Bo Hu Tong and other Han dynasty texts, is Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth. The organs are most effectively treated, according to theory, in the following four-hour periods throughout the day, beginning with the 3 a.m. to 7 a. m. period: Metal organs (see the list below), Earth organs, Fire₁ organs, Water organs, Fire₂ (the "non-empirical" Pericardium and Triple Burner organs), and Wood organs, which is the reverse of the citation order (plus an extra use of Fire and the non-empirical organs to take care of the sixth four-hour period of the day). These two orders are further related to the sequence of the planets going outward from the sun (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, or Water, Metal, Fire, Wood, and Earth) by a star diagram similar to the one shown above.^[3]

The sequence of the five elements (Traditional Chinese medicine)：promotion, inhibition, Cheng (bullying), Wu (insult).

Movement	Wood	Fire	Earth	Metal	Water
Planet	Jupiter	Mars	Saturn	Venus	Mercury
Mental Quality	Sensitivity	Creativity	Clarity	Intuition	Spontaneity
Emotion	anger	happiness	love	grief, sadness	fear, scare
Zang (yin organs)	liver	heart/pericardium	spleen/pancreas	lung	kidney
Fu (yang organs)	gall bladder	small intestine/San Jiao	stomach	large intestine	urinary bladder
Sensory organ	eye	tongue	Mouth	nose	ears
Body Part	Tendons	Pulse	Muscle	Skin	Bones
Body Fluid	Tears	Sweat	Saliva	Mucus	Urine
Finger	index finger	middle finger	thumb	ring finger	little finger
Sense	sight	speech	taste	smell	hearing
Taste	sour	bitter	sweet	pungent	salty
Smell	Rancid	Scorched	Fragrant	Rotten	Putrid
Life	birth	youth	adulthood	old age	death

Celestial stem

Main article: Celestial stem

Movement	Wood	Fire	Earth	Metal	Water
Heavenly Stem	Jia 甲 Yi 乙	Bing 丙 Ding 丁	Wu 戊 Ji 己	Geng 庚 Xin 辛	Ren 壬 Gui 癸
Year ends with	4, 5	6, 7	8, 9	0, 1	2, 3

Music

Main article: Chinese music
The Yuèlìng chapter (月令篇) of the Lǐjì (禮記) and the Huáinánzǐ (淮南子) make the following correlations:

Movement	Wood	Fire	Earth	Metal	Water
Colour	Green and Blue	Red	Yellow	White	Black
Direction	east	south	center	west	north
The Basic Pentatonic Scale	jué 角 (mi)	zhǐ 徵 (so)	gōng 宮 (do)	shāng 商 (re)	yǔ 羽 (la)

(Notes:

• The Chinese word 青 qīng, has many meanings, including green, azure, cyan, and black. It refers to green in Wu Xing.
• In most modern music, various seven note or five note scales (e.g., the major scale) are defined by selecting seven or five frequencies from the set of twelve semi-tones in the Equal tempered tuning. The Chinese "lǜ" tuning is closest to the ancient Greek tuning of Pythagoras. See Chinese musicology.)

Martial arts

Taijiquan

Main article: Tai chi chuan

Taijiquan uses the five elements to designate different directions, positions or footwork patterns. Either forward, backward, left, right and centre, or three steps forward (attack) and two steps back (retreat).^[5]
The Five Steps (五步 wǔ bù):
Chin Pu (進步 jìn bù) - Forward step.
T'ui Pu (退步 tùi bù) - Backward step.
Tsuo Ku (左顧 (simpl.: 左顾) zǔo gù) - Left step.
You P'an (右盼 yòu pàn) - Right step.
Chung Ting (中定 zhōng dìng) - The central position, balance, equilibrium.
Xingyiquan

Main article: Xingyiquan
Xingyiquan uses the five elements to metaphorically represent five different states of combat.

Movement	Fist	Chinese	Pinyin	Description
Wood	Crushing	崩	Bēng	To collapse, as a building collapsing in on itself.
Fire	Pounding	炮	Pào	Exploding outward like a cannon while blocking.
Earth	Crossing	橫	Héng	Crossing across the line of attack while turning over.
Metal	Splitting	劈	Pī	To split like an axe chopping up and over.
Water	Drilling	鑽	Zuān	Drilling forward horizontally like a geyser.

See also



Tablet, in Chinese and Manchu, for the gods of the 5 elements in the Temple of Heaven

• Color in Chinese culture
• Flying Star Feng Shui
• Humorism
• Qi
• Zang Fu

Bibliography

• Feng Youlan (Yu-lan Fung), A History of Chinese Philosophy, volume 2, p. 13
• Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, volume 2, pp. 262–23
• Maciocia, G. 2005, The Foundations of Chinese Medicine, 2nd edn, Elsevier Ltd., London

References

1. ^千古中医之张仲景. Wood and Metal were often replaced with air. Lecture Room, CCTV-10.
2. ^Chinese Five Elements Chart Information on the Chinese Five Elements from Northern Shaolin Academy in Microsoft Excel 2003 Format
3. ^ See 5 Xing in Citation Order.
4. ^promotioninhibitionChengwu
5. ^Wu, Kung-tsao (1980, 2006). Wu Family T'ai Chi Ch'uan (吳家太極拳). Chien-ch’uan T’ai-chi Ch’uan Association. ISBN 0-9780499-0-X.

External links

• Acupuncture Text Book Corrections Corrections to English translation errors in textbooks
• Five Elements Malaysia I Ching Net
• Five Element Information Five Element interrelationships, concordances and causative factors.
• Chinese Zodiac Chart Find your Chinese Zodiac sign based on your date of birth.
• The sequence of the five elements

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Xing

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1958 - The Year of The Golden Earth Dog

CHINESE ASTROLOGY

Chinese Astrology is the divination of the future from the Chinese calendar, which is based on astronomy, and ancient Chinese philosophy.

In particular, Chinese Astrology is based on the sexagenary cycle of 60 years that has been documented
since the time of the Shang Dynasty at the latest.

This basic cycle has been constructed from two cycles: the 10 heavenly stems (the five elements in their yin and yang forms) and the 12 earthly branches, or the 12-year cycle of animals referred to as the Chinese zodiac.

The Chinese animal zodiac also operates on a cycle of months or 'moons' and of hours of the day.

The Chinese zodiac refers to a pure calendrical cycle; there are no equivalent constellations like those of the occidental zodiac.

In imperial Chinese times there were astrologers who watched the sky for heavenly omens that would predict the future of the state, but this was a quite different practice of divination from the popular present-day methods.

Background of Chinese Astrology:
The ancient Chinese astronomers called the 5 major planets by the names of the element they were associated with: Venus corresponds to Metal (gold); Jupiter to Wood; Mercury to Water; Mars to Fire; Saturn to Earth. According to Chinese Astrology, a person's destiny can be determined by the position of the major planets, along with the positions of the Sun, Moon and comets and the person's time of birth and Zodiac Sign. The Chinese Astrology system of the twelve year cycle of animal signs was built from observations of the orbit of Jupiter. Chinese astronomers divided the celestial circle into 12 sections to follow the orbit of Suìxing (Jupiter, the Year Star). Astronomers rounded the orbit of Suixing to 12 years (from 11.86). Suixing was associated with Sheti and sometimes called Sheti. A laborious system of computing one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday and birth hours is still used regularly in modern day Chinese astrology to divine one's fortune. The 28 Chinese constellations are quite different from the 88 Western constellations. In addition to astrological readings of the heavenly bodies, the stars in the sky form the basis of many fairy tales. For example, the Summer Triangle is the trio of the cowherd (Altair), the weaving maiden fairy (Vega), and the "tai bai" fairy (Deneb). The two forbidden lovers were separated by the silvery river (the Milky Way). Each year on the seventh day of the seventh month in the Chinese calendar, the birds form a bridge across the Milky Way. The cowherd carries their two sons (the two stars on each side of Altair) across the bridge to reunite with their fairy mother. The tai bai fairy acts as the chaperone of these two immortal lovers.

The lunisolar calendar in Chinese Astrology:
The 60-year cycle consists of two separate cycles interacting with each other. The first is the cycle of ten heavenly stems, namely the Five Elements (in order Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water) in their Yin and Yang forms. The second is the cycle of the twelve Zodiac animal signs or Earthly Branches. They are in order as follows: the rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep (ram or goat), monkey, rooster, dog, and boar . This combination of 5 elements × 12 animals creates the 60-year cycle, which always starts with Wood Rat and ends with Water Boar. Since the zodiac animal cycle of 12 is divisible by two, every zodiac sign can also only occur in either yin or yang: the dragon is always yang, the snake is always yin, etc. When trying to calculate the relevant year, an easy rule to follow is that years that end in an even number are yang, those that end with an odd number are yin. The cycle proceeds as follows:

If the year ends in 0 it is Yang Metal.
If the year ends in 1 it is Yin Metal.
If the year ends in 2 it is Yang Water.
If the year ends in 3 it is Yin Water.
If the year ends in 4 it is Yang Wood.
If the year ends in 5 it is Yin Wood.
If the year ends in 6 it is Yang Fire.
If the year ends in 7 it is Yin Fire.
If the year ends in 8 it is Yang Earth.
If the year ends in 9 it is Yin Earth.
However, since the (traditional) Chinese zodiac follows the (lunisolar)

Chinese calendar, the switch over date is the Chinese New Year, not January 1 as in the Gregorian calendar. Therefore, a person who was born in January or early February has the sign of the previous year. For example, if a person was born in January 1970, his or her element would still be Yin Earth, not Yang Metal. Similarly, although 1990 was called the year of the horse, anyone born from January 1 to January 26, 1990 was in fact born in the Year of the Snake (the sign of the previous year), because the 1990 Year of the Horse did not begin until January 27, 1990.

For this reason, many online sign calculators (and Chinese restaurant placemats) will give a person the wrong sign if he/she was born in January or early February.

The start of a new Zodiac is also celebrated on Chinese New Year along with many other customs.

Five elements in Chinese Astrology:
The Yin or Yang is broken down into Five Elements (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water) on top of the cycle of animals. These are modifiers and affect the characteristics of each of the 12 animal signs. Thus, each of the 12 animals are governed by an element plus a Yin Yang Direction. The Chinese conception of 'element' is therefore quite different to the Western one.

The Western elements were seen as the basic building blocks of matter. The Chinese 'elements', by contrast, were seen as ever changing and moving forces or energies - one translation of xing is simply 'the five changes'. The balance of yin and yang and the five elements in a person's make-up has a major bearing on what is beneficial and effective for them in terms of feng shui, the Chinese form of geomancy. This is because each element is linked to a particular direction and season, and their different kinds of qì or life force.

Wood in Chinese Astrology:
The East
Spring
Azure Dragon
The Planet Jupiter
The Color Green
Liver and gallbladder
Generous, Warm, Persuasive, Co-operative, Seeks to Expand and Grow
Idealistic, Ethical, Enthusiastic, Seeks to Explore
Wood 'Governs' the Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon

Fire in Chinese Astrology:
The South
Summer
Vermilion Bird
The Planet Mars
The Color Red
Circulatory system and Heart
Dynamic, Humanitarian, Energetic, Passionate, Enterprising, Adventurous, Restless
Competitive, Leadership Skills, Strong, Single-minded, Loves a good laugh
Fire 'Governs' the Snake, Horse and Sheep.

Earth in Chinese Astrology:
Center
Three Enclosures, Change of seasons
The Yellow Dragon
The Planet Saturn
The Color Yellow
Digestive system, Spleen and stomach
Patient, Militaristic, Prudent, Stable, Reliable, Hard-working, Ambitious, Stubborn, and very energetic
Disciplined, Tenacious, Logical, Governed by Service and Duty to Others
'Governs' Dragon, Rat, and Ox. It is the central balance of the elements and can lend qualities to all 12 animals as well.

Metal in Chinese Astrology:
The West
Autumn
White Tiger
The Planet Venus
The Color White
Respiratory system & Lungs Determined, Self-reliant, Unyielding, Strong, Tenacious, Forceful
Reserved, Needs Personal Space, Sophisticated, Seeks pleasure, caring, respectful
Metal 'Governs' the Monkey, Rooster, Dog.

Water in Chinese Astrology:
The North
Winter
Black Tortoise
The Planet Mercury
The Color Black
Skeletal/Excretory System and Lungs
Secretive, Charming, Intuitive, Compassionate, Sensitive, Creative
Flexible, Compliant, Eloquence, Intellectual
Water 'Governs' the Pig, Rat, Ox.

Element cycles in Chinese Astrology:
Interactions of Five Chinese Elements - Cycles of Balance and Cycles of ImbalanceThe doctrine of five phases describes two Cycles of Balance, a generating or creation cycle and an overcoming or destruction cycle of interactions between the phases.

Generating: Wood feeds Fire; Fire creates Earth (ash); Earth bears Metal; Metal collects Water and Water nourishes Wood.

Overcoming: wood parts earth; earth absorbs water; water quenches fire; fire melts metal and metal chops wood

The 12 zodiac animals in Chinese Astrology:
In Chinese astrology the zodiac of twelve animal signs represents twelve different types of personality. The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of the Rat, and there are many stories about the Origins of the Chinese Zodiac which explain why this is so.

Rat (Yang, 1st Trine, Fixed Element Water): Forthright, disciplined, systematic, meticulous, charismatic, hardworking, industrious, charming, eloquent, sociable, shrewd. Can be manipulative, cruel, dictatorial, rigid, selfish, obstinate, critical, over-ambitious, ruthless, intolerant, scheming. Ox (Yin, 2nd Trine, Fixed Element Water): Dependable, calm, methodical, patient, hardworking, ambitious, conventional, steady, modest, logical, resolute, tenacious. Can be stubborn, narrow-minded, materialistic, rigid, demanding. Tiger (Yang, 3rd Trine, Fixed Element Wood): Unpredictable, rebellious, colorful, powerful, passionate, daring, impulsive, vigorous, stimulating, sincere, affectionate, humanitarian, generous. Can be restless, reckless, impatient, quick-tempered, obstinate, selfish. Rabbit (Yin, 4th Trine, Fixed Element Wood): Gracious, kind, sensitive, soft-spoken, amiable, elegant, reserved, cautious, artistic, thorough, tender, self-assured, astute, compassionate, flexible. Can be moody, detached, superficial, self-indulgent, opportunistic, lazy. Dragon (Yang, 1st Trine, Fixed Element Wood): Magnanimous, vigorous, strong, self-assured, proud, direct, eager, zealous, fiery, passionate, decisive, pioneering, ambitious, generous, loyal. Can be arrogant, tyrannical, demanding, eccentric, dogmatic, over-bearing, impetuous, brash. Snake (Yin, 2nd Trine, Fixed Element Fire): Deep thinker, wise, mystic, graceful, soft-spoken, sensual, creative, prudent, shrewd, ambitious, elegant, cautious, responsible, calm, strong, constant, purposeful. Can be loner, bad communicator, possessive, hedonistic, self-doubting, distrustful, mendacious. Horse (Yang, 3rd Trine, Fixed Element Fire): Cheerful, popular, quick-witted, changeable, earthy, perceptive, talkative, agile mentally and physically, magnetic, intelligent, astute, flexible, open-minded. Can be fickle, anxious, rude, gullible, stubborn, lack stability and perseverance. Sheep (Yin, 4th Trine, Fixed Element Fire): Righteous, sincere, sympathetic, mild-mannered, shy, artistic, creative, gentle, compassionate, understanding, mothering, determined, peaceful, generous, seeks security. Can be moody, indecisive, over-passive, worrier, pessimistic, over-sensitive, complainer. Monkey (Yang, 1st Trine, Fixed Element Metal): Inventor, motivator, improviser, quick-witted, inquisitive, flexible, innovative, problem solver, self-assured, sociable, polite, dignified, competitive, objective, factual, intellectual. Can be egotistical, vain, selfish, cunning, jealous, suspicious. Rooster (Yin, 2nd Trine, Fixed Element Metal): Acute, neat, meticulous, organized, self-assured, decisive, conservative, critical, perfectionist, alert, zealous, practical, scientific, responsible. Can be over zealous and critical, puritanical, egotistical, abrasive, opinionated. Dog (Yang, 3rd Trine, Fixed Element Metal): Honest, intelligent, straightforward, loyal, sense of justice and fair play, attractive, amiable, unpretentious, sociable, open-minded, idealistic, moralistic, practical, affectionate, dogged. Can be cynical, lazy, cold, judgmental, pessimistic, worrier, stubborn, quarrelsome. Pig (Yin, 4th Trine, Fixed Element Water): Honest, simple, gallant, sturdy, sociable, peace-loving, patient, loyal, hard-working, trusting, sincere, calm, understanding, thoughtful, scrupulous, passionate, intelligent. Can be naive, over-reliant, self-indulgent, gullible, fatalistic, materialistic. In Chinese astrology the animal signs assigned by year represent what others perceive you as being or how you present yourself. It is a common misconception that the animals assigned by year are the only signs, and many western descriptions of Chinese astrology draw solely on this system. In fact, there are also animal signs assigned by month (called inner animals) and hours of the day (called secret animals).

To sum it up, while a person might appear to be a dragon because they were born in the year of the dragon, they might also be a snake internally and an ox secretively. In total, this makes for 8,640 possible combinations (five elements x 12 animals in the 60 year cycle (12 x 5 = 60) , 12 months, 12 times of day) that a person might be. These are all critical for the proper use of Chinese astrology.

The months - the inner animals in Chinese Astrology:
The 12 animals are also linked to the traditional Chinese agricultural calendar, that runs alongside the better known lunar calendar. Instead of months, this calendar is divided into 24 two week segments known as Solar Terms. Each animal is linked to two of these solar terms for a period similar to the Western month. Unlike the 60 year lunar calendar, which can vary by as much as a month in relation to the Western calendar, the agricultural calendar varies by only one day, beginning on the Western February 3rd or 4th every year. Again unlike the cycle of the lunar years, which begins with the Rat, the agricultural calendar begins with the Tiger as it is the first animal of spring. An individual's monthly animal sign is called their inner animal and is concerned with what motivates a person. Since this sign dictates the person's love life and inner persona, it is critical to a proper understanding of the individual's compatibility with other signs. As each sign is linked to a month of the solar year, it is thereby also linked to a season. Each of the elements are also linked to a season, and the element that shares a season with a sign is known as that sign's fixed element. In other words, that element is believed to impart some of its characteristics to the sign concerned. The fixed element of each sign applies also to the year and hour signs, and not just the monthly sign. It is important to note that the fixed element is separate from the cycle of elements which interact with the signs in the 60 year cycle.

The hours - the secret animals in Chinese Astrology:
The Chinese zodiac is also used to label times of day, with each sign corresponding to a "large-hour", which is a two-hour period (24 divided by 12 animals). It is therefore important to know the exact time of birth to determine it.

The secret animal is thought to be a person’s truest representation, since this animal is determined by the smallest denominator: a person’s birth hour. As this sign is based on the position of the sun in the sky and not the time of your local clock, it is important to compensate of daylight savings time. However, some online systems already compensate for daylight savings time, and astrologers may compensate your time for you oblivious to the fact that you've compensated it yourself, leading to an inaccurate reading. The large-hour in which a person is born is their secret animal. It is a person's own true sign which their personality is based on. Note that while this chart is quite accurate, the exact time at which each animal begins shifts by the day.

23:00 - 01:00: rat
01:00 - 03:00: ox
03:00 - 05:00: tiger
05:00 - 07:00: rabbit
07:00 - 09:00: dragon
09:00 - 11:00: snake
11:00 - 13:00: horse
13:00 - 15:00: sheep
15:00 - 17:00: monkey
17:00 - 19:00: rooster
19:00 - 21:00: dog
21:00 - 23:00: pig

Categorizations of the twelve signs in Chinese Astrology:
Power Signs

Rat
Ox
Tiger
Dragon
Snake
Monkey
Romance Signs

Rabbit
Horse
Sheep
Rooster
Dog
Pig

The Four Animal Trines in Chinese Astrology:
The First Trine in Chinese Astrology:

The first trine consists of the Rat, Dragon, and Monkey. These three signs are intense and powerful individuals, capable of great good or great evil. They make great leaders, but the three have different approaches. Rats and Dragons have a tendency to be quite dictatorial and autocratic, whilst Monkeys are more diplomatic. Frustrated when hampered, these signs are ruled by highly potent energy and unpredictability. They are intelligent, magnanimous, charismatic, charming, authoritative, confident, eloquent and artistic. They can also be tyrannical, bombastic, prejudiced, deceitful, imperious, ruthless, power-hungry, and megalomaniacal.

The Second Trine in Chinese Astrology:
The second trine consists of the Ox, Snake, and Rooster. These three soul mates conquer life through endurance, application, and slow accumulation of energy. Although each sign is fixed and rigid in opinions and views, they are genius in the art of meticulous planning. They are hardworking, discreet, modest, industrious, charitable, loyal, punctual, philosophical, patient, and good-hearted individuals with high moral standards. They can also be self-righteous, vain, critical, judgmental, unimaginative, narrow-minded, petty, and pessimistic.

The Third Trine in Chinese Astrology:
The third trine consists of the Tiger, Horse, and Dog. These three signs seek one another, and are like-minded in their pursuit of humanitarian causes. Each is a gifted orator and excels at verbal communication. Relationships and personal contact are of highest priority and each one seek their intimate soul mate. Idealistic and impulsive, the Tiger, Horse and Dog follow the beat of their own drummer. Defiant against injustice, these three signs wilt without large amounts of physical affection and loyal support for causes. They are productive, enthusiastic, independent, engaging, dynamic, and honourable. They can also be rash, rebellious, quarrelsome, hot-headed, reckless, anxious, moody, disagreeable, stubborn, and selfish.

The Fourth Trine in Chinese Astrology:
The fourth trine consists of the Rabbit, Sheep and Pig. The quest for these three signs is the aesthetic and beautiful in life. Their calm nature gives them great leadership abilities. They are artistic, refined, intuitive, and well-mannered. These souls love the preliminaries in love, and are fine artists in their lovemaking. The Rabbit, Sheep and Pig have been bestowed with calmer natures than the other 9 signs. These three are compassionately aware, yet detached and resigned to their condition. They seek beauty and a sensitive lover. They are caring, unique, self-sacrificing, obliging, sensible, creative, emphatic, tactful, and prudent. They can also be naive, pedantic, insecure, cunning, indecisive, and pessimistic.

Origins of the Chinese Zodiac in Chinese Astrology:
According to one legend, in the sixth century B.C. the Jade Emperor invited all the animals in creation to a race, only twelve showed up: the Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Lamb, Monkey, XXXX, Dog, and Pig, and according to their places in the race, the Jade Emperor had given them each a number starting with the Rat who was the winner of the race. Many legends arose from the Race of the Chinese Zodiacs. One told of the reason why cats and rats shall always be enemies: He and the cat (at the time good friends) were poor swimmers, so they asked the ox if they could stay on top of his head to cross the river. Along the way he pushed the cat off of the ox's back. And the cat, incapable of swimming, lagged behind. The rat stayed on top of the ox's head until the ox was almost at the finish line. And as the ox was about to cross it, the rat jumped from the ox's head and became first place. And the cat and rat have been enemies ever since. Another legend tells that the cat had asked the rat to wake him up the day of the Race. The rat agreed, but on the said day, he did not wake the cat in his greed to win. When the cat finally woke up and got to the racing ground, he found the race to be over. The cat then swore revenge upon the rat. The legend of the Zodiac Race, of course, is by far the least credible of all explanations of the origin of the Chinese zodiac. Because the "twelve earthly branches" which correspond with the zodiac, was already in existence as early as the Zhou era, long before the advent of Buddhism. A parallel decimal set of symbols called "ten heavenly stems", corresponding with yin-yang dualism and the five elements (wood, fire, earth, metal, water) was in existence in the Shang dynasty as the stems were part of Shang rulers' names. The Zodiac, or the "twelve earthly branches" is probably devised together with the ten heavenly stems. As a duodecimal numeral system, the twelve earthly branches is probably evidence for trade between early tribes that later contributed to the Chinese civilization on the one hand, and the Mesopotamian civilization, which perfected duodecimal arithmetics, on the other. The Chinese zodiac, though not entirely identical with the Greek zodiac, nonetheless shares with it the duodecimal system and the idea of using animals as numerical symbols. This is a hint for the triangular relations between early Chinese, Mesopotamian and Greek cultures. When the Bulgars, an early Turkic tribe within the Hun tribal federation that invaded Europe at the end of the Roman Empire, brought with them the very same Chinese zodiac. This is a probability that the Chinese zodiac is of northern Chinese origin, commonly shared among Altaic and northern Chinese tribes. However, nowadays the Thai and Tibetans use the same zodiac with slight modification, probably due to millennia of contact with the Chinese civilization.

Chinese zodiac in other countries:
The Chinese zodiac signs are also used by cultures other than Chinese. For one example, they usually appear on Japanese New Year's cards and stamps. The United States Postal Service and those of several other countries issue a "Year of the _____" postage stamp each year to honor this Chinese heritage. However, those unfamiliar with the use of the Chinese lunar calendar usually just assume that the signs switch over on Jan 1 of each year. Those who are serious about the fortune telling aspect of the signs can consult a table, such as the one above. The Chinese zodiac is also used in some other Asian countries that have been under the cultural influence of China. However, some of the animals in the Zodiac may differ by country. East Asia:
For example, the Vietnamese zodiac is almost identical to Chinese zodiac except that the second animal is the water buffalo instead of the ox, the fourth animal is the cat instead of the rabbit and the eighth animal is the goat instead of the sheep. The Japanese zodiac includes the wild boar instead of the pig, and the Thai zodiac includes a naga in place of the dragon. Turkic people:
The European Huns used the Chinese Zodiac complete with "dragon", "pig". This common Chinese-Turkic Zodiac was in use in Balkan Bulgaria well into the Bulgars' adoption of Slavic language and Orthodox Christianity. Following is the Hunnish or Turkic Bulgarian Pagan zodiac calendar, distinctive from the Greek zodiac but much in conformity with the Chinese one:

History Of Chinese Astrology
Chinese Astrology is more than 2,000 years old. Originally, astrology and astronomy were inseparable. Practitioners were always present as officials of the imperial court. Astrology was also used to show what would even happen to a nation. By the time of the Tand Dynasty (618-907) a whole encyclopedia had been written about how to give astrology readings for people. Astrology was always traditionally regarded very highly in China, and indeed Confucius is said to have treated astrology with respect saying: "Heaven sends down its good or evil symbols and wise men act accordingly". The 60 year cycle combining the five elements with the twelve animal signs of the zodiac has been documented in China since at least the time of the Shang (Shing or Yin) dynasty (ca 1766BC - CA 1050BC). Oracles bones have been found dating from that period with the date according to the 60 year cycle inscribed on them, along with the name of the diviner and the topic being divined about. One of the most famous astrologers in China was Tsou Yen who lived in around 300 BC, and who wrote: "When some new dynasty is going to arise, heaven exhibits auspicious signs for the people".

Year Of The Rat
The Year of the Rat in Chinese Astrology.
Rat people are expressive and can be talkative sometimes. They like to go to parties and spend time chatting with their friends. Rat people usually have more acquaintances than real friends. The Rat is also quick witted.
Most rats get more accomplished in 24 hours than the rest of us do in as many days. Rat people are Stubborn.
They prefer to live by their own rules. They are very organized and talented. The Rat makes a good businessman or politician. Unfortunately, as soon as the Rat earns money, they spend it.

Ranking order : First
Hours ruled by the rat : 11pm - 1am
Direction of its sign : Directly North
Season and principal month : Winter December
Corresponds to Western sign : Sagittarius
Fixed Element : Water
Stem : Positive

Year
31 January 1900 - 18 February 1901
10 February 1912 - 5 February 1913
5 February 1924 - 24 January 1925
24 January 1936 - 10 February 1937
10 February 1948 - 28 January 1949
28 January 1960 - 14 February 1961
15 February 1972 - 2 February 1973
2 February 1984 - 19 February 1985
18 February 1996 - 6 February 1997
7 February 2008 - 25 January 2009
24 January 2020 - 11 February 2021
Greatest Affinity : Dragon, Monkey
Greatest Enmity : Horse.

Year Of The Ox
The Year of the Ox in Chinese Astrology.
Ox people are hard working and persistent. They hold up their high standards as a model and severely judge those who don't aspire to maintain these same ideals. They are capable of fearsome rages, therefore it is better not to cross an Oxen. They are patient, and caring and that makes the Oxen the best friend you can ever have.

Ranking order : Second
Hours ruled by the ox : 1 am - 3 am
Direction of its sign : North-Northeast
Season and principal month : Winter-January
Corresponds to Western sign : Capricorn
Fixed Element : Water
Stem : Negative

Year
19 February 1901 - 7 February 1902
6 February 1913 - 25 January 1914
25 January 1925 - 12 February 1926
11 February 1937 - 30 January 1938
29 January 1949 - 16 February 1950
15 February 1961 - 4 February 1962
3 February 1973 - 22 January 1974
20 February 1985 - 8 February 1986
7 February 1997 - 28 January 1998
26 January 2009 - 14 February 2010
12 February 2021 - 31 January 2022
31 January 2033 - 18 February 2034
Greatest Affinity : Rooster, Snake
Greatest Enmity : Sheep.

Year Of The Tiger
The Year of the Tiger in Chinese Astrology.
Born Leader, is the key word for the Tigers. Tigers are unpredictable, always tense. and like to be in a hurry. They are magnetic characters and their natural air of authority confers a certain prestige on them. Although they love adventures, and are addicted to excitement.

Ranking order : Third
Hours ruled by the tiger : 3 am - 5 am
Direction of its sign : East-Northeast
Season and principal month : Winter-February
Corresponds to Western sign : Aquarius
Fixed Element : Wood
Stem : Positive

Year
8 February 1902 - 28 January 1903
26 January 1914 - 13 February 1915
13 February 1926 - 1 February 1927
31 January 1938 - 18 February 1939
17 February 1950 - 5 February 1951
5 February 1962 - 24 January 1963
23 January 1974 - 10 February 1975
9 February 1986 - 28 January 1987
28 January 1998 - 15 February 1999
15 February 2010 - 2 February 2011
1 February 2022 - 21 January 2023
Greatest Affinity : Dog, Horse
Greatest Enmity : Monkey.

Year Of The Rabbit
The Year of the Rabbit in Chinese Astrology.
Rabbits are usually kind, sweet and popular people. Rabbit people have good artistic sense and taste. They are also usually well-dressed. Rabbit people are also pessimistic. They are conservative and insecure. They can be great partners in relationships. Romantic and sweet, faithful too, rabbit people never lack of suitors.

Ranking order : Fourth
Hours ruled by the rabbit : 5 am - 7 am
Direction of its sign : Directly East
Season and principal month : Spring - March
Corresponds to Western sign : Pisces
Fixed Element : Wood
Stem : Negative

Year
29 January 1903 - 15 February 1904
14 February 1915 - 2 February 1916
2 February 1927 - 22 January 1928
19 February 1939 - 7 February 1940
6 February 1951 - 26 January 1952
25 January 1963 - 12 February 1964
11 February 1975 - 30 January 1976
29 January 1987 - 16 February 1988 16 February 1999 - 4 February 2000
3 February 2011 - 22 January 2012
22 January 2023 - 9 February 2024
8 February 2035 - 27 January 2036
2047 - 2048: Fire Hare
Greatest Affinity : Sheep, Boar
Greatest Enmity : Rooster.

Year Of The Dragon
The Year of the Dragon in Chinese Astrology.
Dragons are born leaders and masters of ceremonies. Dragon people get things started and keep them moving. They are feisty and gifted with power and luck. Irritable and stubborn, the Dragon is a real big mouth and his words often outrun his thoughts. Nevertheless, his opinions are worth listening to and his advice is always good. The Dragon is often loved. He is never disappointed in love. In fact, he is frequently the cause of some drama of despair. The women of this sign are surrounded by admirers and often demanded in marriage.

Ranking order : Fifth
Hours ruled by the DRAGON : 7 am - 9 am
Direction of its sign : East-Southeast
Season and principal month : Spring - April
Corresponds to Western sign : Aries
Fixed Element : Wood
Stem : Positive

Year
16 February 1904 - 3 February 1905
3 February 1916 - 22 January 1917
23 January 1928 - 9 February 1929
8 February 1940 - 26 January 1941
27 January 1952 - 13 February 1953
13 February 1964 - 1 February 1965:
31 January 1976 - 17 February 1977
17 February 1988 - 5 February 1989
5 February 2000 - 23 January 2001
23 January 2012 - 9 February 2013
10 February 2024 - 28 January 2025 Greatest Affinity : Rat , Monkey
Greatest Enmity : Dog.

Year Of The Snake
The Year of the Snake in Chinese Astrology.
Snake people are born charming and popular. Snakes are spotlight magnets, and they will not be ignored. They makes decisions quickly and firmly.Snake people rely heavily on first impressions, on their own feelings, on their sympathies, rather than on facts, on the advice and opinions on others. They seem to have a kind of sixth sense in this way. They are capable of telling big lies. The Snake should stick to careers that won't involve any risk, even the risk of working too hard, for to tell the truth, the Snake is a bit lazy. Snake can be jealous and possessive in love.

Ranking order : Sixth
Hours ruled by the SNAKE : 9 am - 11 am
Direction of its sign : South - Southeast
Season and principal month : Spring - May
Corresponds to Western sign : Taurus
Fixed Element : Fire
Stem : Negative

Year
4 February 1905 - 24 January 1906
23 January 1917 - 10 February 1918
10 February 1929 - 29 January 1930
27 January 1941 - 14 February 1942
14 February 1953 - 2 February 1954
2 February 1965 - 20 January 1966
18 February 1977 - 6 February 1978
6 February 1989 - 26 January 1990
24 January 2001 - 11 February 2002
10 February 2013 - 30 January 2014
29 January 2025 - 16 February 2026
15 February 2037 - 4 February 2038 Greatest Affinity : Ox , Rooster
Greatest Enmity : Boar.

Year Of The Horse
The Year of the Horse in Chinese Astrology. Horse people are active and energetic. They got plenty of sex-appeal and know how to dress.The horse is very quick-witted. The Horse is hot-blooded, hot-headed, impatient, and an egoist. The Horse is a worker, adepts at handling money and a good financier. The Horse will give up everything for love. Horses are proud yet sweet-natured, arrogant yet oddly modest in their approach to love, envious but tolerant, conceited yet humble.

Ranking order : Seventh
Hours ruled by the HORSE : 11 am - 1 pm
Direction of its sign : Directly South
Season and principal month : Summer - June
Corresponds to Western sign : Gemini
Fixed Element : Fire
Stem : Positive

Year
25 January 1906 - 12 February 1907
11 February 1918 - 31 January 1919
30 January 1930 - 16 February 1931
15 February 1942 - 4 February 1943
3 February 1954 - 23 January 1955
21 January 1966 - 8 February 1967
7 February 1978 - 27 January 1979
27 January 1990 - 14 February 1991
12 February 2002 - 31 January 2003
31 January 2014 - 18 February 2015
17 February 2026-5 February 2027
Greatest Affinity : Tiger, Dog
Greatest Enmity : Rat.

Year Of The Goat
The Year of the Goat in Chinese Astrology.
Goat people are elegant, charming, artistic, gifted and fond of nature. People born under this sign are also the most creative. They usually shy from confrontation, pull back when faced with heavy decision-making and blatantly refuse to take an unpopular stand in a conflict. Goat people are dreamers. They are obsessed with their appearance. Goats like to study the esoteric to know more about the unknown. They enjoy reading books about horoscope and fortune telling. Goat people are very romantic sensitive, sweet and darling.

Ranking order : Eighth
Hours ruled by the Goat : 1 pm - 3 pm
Direction of its sign : South - Southwest
Season and principal month : Summer - July
Corresponds to Western sign : Cancer
Fixed Element : Fire
Stem : Negative

Year
13 February 1907 - 1 February 1908
1 February 1919 - 19 February 1920
17 February 1931 - 5 February 1932
5 February 1943 - 24 January 1944
24 January 1955 - 11 February 1956
9 February 1967 - 29 January 1968
28 January 1979 - 15 February 1980
15 February 1991 - 3 February 1992
1 February 2003 - 21 January 2004
19 February 2015 - 7 February 2016
Greatest Affinity : Rabbit, Boar
Greatest Enmity : Ox.

Year Of The Monkey
The Year of the Monkey in Chinese Astrology.
Monkeys are fun and loving persons who are always cheerful and energetic. If you go to a party, you'll find Monkeys at the center of attention. Their charm and humor is the key to their popularity. Monkey people are very good at problem solving. Wherever you are, whoever you may be, if you've got a problem pick up the phone and dial-a-Monkey. Monkeys know how to listen closely and work out solutions at the same time.

Ranking order : Ninth
Hours ruled by the MONKEY : 3 pm - 5 pm
Direction of its sign : West - Southwest
Season and principal month : Summer - August
Corresponds to Western sign : Leo
Fixed Element : Metal
Stem : Positive

Year
20 February 1920 - 7 February 1921
6 February 1932 - 25 January 1933
25 January 1944 - 12 February 1945
12 February 1956 - 30 January 1957
30 January 1968 - 16 February 1969
16 February 1980 - 4 February 1981
4 February 1992 - 6 January 1993
22 January 2004 - 8 February 2005
8 February 2016 - 27 January 2017
26 January 2028 - 12 February 2029
Greatest Affinity : Dragon, Rat
Greatest Enmity : Tiger.

Year Of The Rooster
The Year of the Rooster in Chinese Astrology.
Rooster people are very observant. Roosters have a very keen "sixth sense". With Roosters what you see is exactly what you get. There are no hidden depths to the Rooster's character. Rooster make great hosts and adore entertaining. The main virtue in the Rooster character is loyalty. They make devoted friends. When Roosters love and admire someone, they will even catch the moon just to keep them happy.

Ranking order : Tenth
Hours ruled by the rooster : 5 pm - 7 pm
Direction of its sign : Directly West
Season and principal month : Autumn - September
Corresponds to Western sign : Virgo
Fixed Element : Metal
Stem : Negative

Year
22 January 1909 - 9 February 1910
8 February 1921 - 27 January 1922
26 January 1933 - 13 February 1934
13 February 1945 - 1 February 1946
31 January 1957 - 17 February 1958
17 February 1969 - 5 February 1970
5 February 1981 - 24 January 1982
23 January 1993 - 9 February 1994
9 February 2005 - 28 January 2006
28 January 2017 - 15 February 2018
13 February 2029 - 2 February 2030 Greatest Affinity : Ox, Snake
Greatest Enmity : Rabbit.

Year Of The Dog
The Year of the Dog in Chinese Astrology. Dogs are born old and get younger as they age. They take everything very serious. The Dog enters a relationship where he is the giver and the partner is the taker. He is usually very generous and loyal, and in love, he is honest and straightforward.

Ranking order : Eleventh.
Hours ruled by the Dog : 7 pm - 9 pm
Direction of its sign : West - Northwest
Season and principal month : Autumn - October
Corresponds to Western sign : Libra
Fixed Element : Metal
Stem : Positive

Year
1898 - 2 February 1899
10 February 1910 - 21 January 1911
28 January 1922 - 14 February 1923
14 February 1934 - 25 January 1935
2 February 1946 - 21 January 1947
17 February 1958 - 8 February 1959
6 February 1970 - 26 January 1971
25 January 1982 - 12 February 1983
9 February 1994 - 30 January 1995
29 January 2006 - 17 February 2007
16 February 2018 - 4 February 2019
3 February 2030 - 22 January 2031
Greatest Affinity : Tiger , Horse
Greatest Enmity : Dragon.

Year Of The Pig
The Year of the Pig in Chinese Astrology.
Pigs are models of sincerity, purity, tolerance, and honor. They are careful and caring, obliging and chivalrous. Put your trust in him, he won't let you down and he will never try to. Pigs are the people everyone admires most. In relationship, Pig people are sensitive, sweet but naive, and caring. They are romantic and certainly are the marriage type. But on the other hand, Pigs are also possessive, jealous and exclusive.

Ranking order : Eleventh
Hours ruled by the Pig : 7 pm - 9 pm
Direction of its sign : West - Northwest
Season and principal month : Autumn - October
Corresponds to Western sign : Libra
Fixed Element : Metal
Stem : Positive

Year:
3 February 1899 - 31 January 1900
30 January 1911 - 17 February 1912
16 February 1923 - 4 February 1924
4 February 1935 - 23 January 1936
22 January 1947 - 9 February 1948
8 February 1959 - 27 January 1960
27 January 1971 - 14 February 1972
13 February 1983 - 1 February 1984
27 January 1971 - 14 February 1972
16 February 2007 - 6 February 2008
5 February 2019 - 24 January 2020
23 January 2031 - 10 February 2032
10 February 2043 - 29 January 2044
Greatest Affinity : Tiger , Horse
Greatest Enmity : Dragon.

Five Elements
Each animal has a predominant natural element that rules over them. There are five elements : water, wood, fire, metal, and earth. There are no earth elements because earth occupies the center of all elements. In addition to each animal having a natural element, each individual year has a presiding element. In some years, the year element is in sympathy with the animal's element, in other years it will work against. So in the non-sympathetic years, an animal might have to overcome more obstacles that the year encompasses.

Animal Sign Origins
The real origin of the animal signs in Chinese astrology is not clear. Legend suggests the creation is attributed to the Yellw Emperor in 2637 B.C. The Yellow Emperor is a semimythical figure. Another legend attributes Buddha c.563-c.483 B.C, with the creation of the animal cycle. Buddha had invited all the animals to visit him but only twelve turned up. To show thanks, Buddha dedicated a year to each animal throughout history. The years were allocated in the order the animals arrived.

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Dates - note, chinese new year, doesn't begin on the 1st of a Gregorian Calendar Year
this includes your year, along with The Element Dates

1900 Rat Metal (1/31/1900 to 2/18/1901)
1901 Ox Metal (2/19/1902 to 2/7/1902)
1902 Tiger Water (2/8/1902 to 1/28/1903)
1903 Cat Water (1/29/1903 to 2/15/1904)
1904 Dragon Wood (2/16/1904 to 2/3/1905)
1905 Snake Wood 2/4/1905 to 1/24/1906)
1906 Horse Fire (1/25/1906 to 2/12/1907)
1907 Goat Fire (2/13/1907 to 2/1/1908)
1908 Monkey Earth (2/2/1908 to 1/21/1909)
1909 Rooster Earth 1/22/1909 to 2/9/1910)
1910 Dog Metal (2/10/1910 to 1/29/1911)
1911 Pig Metal (1/30/1911 to 2/17/1912
1912 Rat Water (2/18/1912 to 2/5/1913)
1913 Ox Water (2/6/1913 to 1/25/1914)
1914 Tiger Wood (1/26/1914 to 2/13/1915)
1915 Cat Wood (2/14/1915 to 2/2/1916)
1916 Dragon Fire (2/3/1916 to 1/22/1917)
1917 Snake Fire (1/23/1917 to 2/10/1918)
1918 Horse Earth (2/11/1918 to 1/31/1919)
1919 Goat Earth (2/1/1919 to 2/19/1920)
1920 Monkey Metal (2/20/1920 to 2/7/1921)
1921 Rooster Metal (2/8/1921 to 1/27/1922)
1922 Dog Water (1/28/1922 to 2/15/1923)
1923 Pig Water (2/16/1923 to 2/4/1924)
1924 Rat Wood (2/5/1924 to 1/23/1925)
1925 Ox Wood (1/24/1925 to 2/12/1926)
1926 Tiger Fire (2/13/1926 to 2/1/1927)
1927 Cat Fire (2/2/1927 to 1/22/1928)
1928 Dragon Earth (1/23/1928 to 2/9/1929)
1929 Snake Earth (2/10/1929 to 1/29/1930)
1930 Horse Metal (1/30/1930 to 2/16/1931)
1931 Goat Metal (2/17/1931 to 2/5/1932)
1932 Monkey Water (2/6/1932 to 1/25/1933)
1933 Rooster Water (1/26/1933 to 2/13/1934)
1934 Dog Wood (2/14/1934 to 2/3/1935)
1935 Pig Wood (2/4/1935 to 1/23/1936)
1936 Rat Fire (1/24/1936 to 2/10/1937)
1937 Ox Fire (2/11/1937 to 1/30/1938)
1938 Tiger Earth (1/31/1938 to 2/18/1939)
1939 Cat Earth (2/19/1939 to 2/7/1940)
1940 Dragon Metal (2/8/1940 to 1/26/1941)
1941 Snake Metal (1/27/1941 to 2/14/1942)
1942 Horse Water (2/15/1942 to 2/4/1943)
1943 Goat Water (2/5/1943 to 1/24/1944)
1944 Monkey Wood (1/25/1944 to 2/12/1945)
1945 Rooster Wood (2/13/1945 to 2/1/1946)
1946 Dog Fire (2/2/1946 to 1/21/1947)
1947 Pig Fire (1/22/1947 to 2/9/1948)
1948 Rat Earth (2/10/1948 to 1/28/1949)
1949 Ox Earth (1/29/1949 to 2/16/1950)
1950 Tiger Metal (2/17/1950 to 2/5/1951)
1951 Cat Metal (2/6/1951 to 1/26/1952)
1952 Dragon Water (1/27/1952 to 2/13/1953)
1953 Snake Water (2/14/1953 to 2/2/1954)
1954 Horse Wood (2/3/1954 to 1/23/1955)
1955 Goat Wood (1/24/1955 to 2/11/1956)
1956 Monkey Fire (2/12/1956 to 1/30/1957)
1957 Rooster Fire (1/31/1957 to 2/17/1958)
1958 Dog Earth (2/18/1958 to 2/7/1959)
1959 Pig Earth (2/8/1959 to 1/27/1960)
1960 Rat Metal (1/28/1960 to 2/14/1961)
1961 Ox Metal (2/15/1961 to 2/4/1962
1962 Tiger Water (2/5/1962 to 1/24/1963)
1963 Cat Water (1/25/1963 to 2/12/1964)
1964 Dragon Wood (2/13/1964 to 2/1/1965)
1965 Snake Wood (2/2/1965 to 1/20/1966)
1966 Horse Fire (1/21/1966 to 2/8/1967)
1967 Goat Fire (2/9/1967 to 1/29/1968)
1968 Monkey Earth (1/30/1968 to 2/16/1969)
1969 Rooster Earth (2/17/1969 to 2/5/1970)
1970 Dog Metal (2/6/1970 to 1/26/1971)
1971 Pig Metal (1/27/1971 to 2/14/1972)
1972 Rat Water (2/15/1972 to 2/2/1973)
1973 Ox Water (2/3/1973 to 1/22/1974)
1974 Tiger Wood (1/23/1974 to 2/10/1975)
1975 Cat Wood (2/11/1975 to 1/30/1976)
1976 Dragon Fire (1/31/1976 to 2/17/1977)
1977 Snake Fire (2/18/1977 to 2/6/1978)
1978 Horse Earth (2/7/1978 to 1/27/1979)
1979 Goat Earth (1/28/1979 to 2/15/1980)
1980 Monkey Metal (2/16/1980 to 2/4/1981)
1981 Rooster Metal (2/5/1981 to 1/24/1982)
1982 Dog Water (1/25/1982 to 2/12/1983)
1983 Pig Water (2/13/1983 to 2/1/1984)
1984 Rat Wood (2/2/1984 to 2/19/1985)
1985 Ox Wood (2/20/1985 to 2/8/1986)
1986 Tiger Fire (2/9/1986 to 1/28/1987)
1987 Cat Fire (1/29/1987 to 2/16/1988)
1988 Dragon Earth (2/17/1988 to 2/5/1989)
1989 Snake Earth (2/6/1989 to 1/26/1990)
1990 Horse Metal (1/27/1990 to 2/14/1991)
1991 Goat Metal (2/15/1991 to 2/3/1992)
1992 Monkey Water (2/4/1992 to 1/22/1993)
1993 Rooster Water (1/23/1993 to 2/9/1994)
1994 Dog Wood (2/10/1994 to 1/30/1995)
1995 Pig Wood (1/31/1995 to 2/18/1996)
1996 Rat Fire (2/19/1996 to 2/6/1997)
1997 Ox Fire (2/7/1997 to 1/27/1998)
1998 Tiger Earth (1/28/1998 to 2/15/1999)
1999 Cat Earth (2/16/1999 to 2/4/2000)
2000 Dragon Metal (2/5/2000 to 1/23/2001)
2001 Snake Metal (1/24/2001 to 2/11/2002)
2002 Horse Water (2/12/2002 to 1/31/2003)
2003 Goat Water (2/1/2003 to 1/21/2004)
2004 Monkey Wood (1/22/2004 to 2/8/2005)
2005 Rooster Wood (2/9/2005 to 1/28/2006)
2006 Dog Fire (1/29/2006 to 2/17/2007)
2007 Pig Fire (2/18/2007 to 2/6/2008)
2008 Rat Earth (2/7/2008 to 1/25/2009)
2009 Ox Earth (1/26/2009 to 2/13/2010)
2010 Tiger Metal (2/14/2010 to 2/2/2011)
2011 Cat Metal (2/3/2011 to 1/22/2012)
2012 Dragon Water (1/23/2012 to 2/9/2013)
2013 Snake Water (2/10/2013 to 1/30/2014)
2014 Horse Wood (1/31/2014 to 2/18/2015)
2015 Goat Wood (2/19/2015 to 2/7/2016)
2016 Monkey Fire (2/8/2016 to 1/27/2017)
2017 Rooster Fire (1/28/2017 to 2/15/2018)
2018 Dog Earth (2/16/2018 to 2/4/2019)
2019 Pig Earth (2/5/2019 to 1/24//2020)

xxxxxxx

Very interesting that we identified this calendar too

xxxxxxx

9,360,000 days = 9,360,000/360= 26000 = 5 x 5200
or,
9,360,360 days = 9,360,360/360=26001 = 5 x 5200.20

xxxxxxx

Information related to The Ancient Chinese Calendar

It was Emperor Wu of The Han Dynasty that introduced reforms on The Chinese Calender
His Tàichū (太初, "Grand Inception" Calendar created in 104 BC placed a year in the winter solstice in the 11th month and, he was the first to utilize a system of 24 solar terms to determine the intercalary month, in which the calendar months (only had 29 or 30 whole days).

These months occur when the sun does NOT pass a principal term (that is, it remains within the same sign of the zodiac, throught that month) and, thus, these months are designated as intercalary months.

The solar year of The Taichu calendar was defined as:
365 Days + 385/1539 days
and The Lunar Month as 29 Days + 43/81 days.
The sun's mean motion was utilized to calculate the solar terms until the year of 1645
The conjunction of The Sun and The Astronomical "NEW" Moon was always calculated utilizing the 'mean motions' of both The Sun and The Moon.

• The Cycle was a Nineteen (19) Year Cycle

In The Ancient Chinese Calendar, this would make 19 solar years, equal to 235 months which is the same as The Metonic Cycle of 19 solar years, equal to 235 months. From that information, it is possible to determine that, there are 7 intercalary months, within 19 years or 235 months 235 Months = (12 Months X 19 Years= 228) + 7 months = 235 months.

IF 1 tropical year was calculated as: 365 1/4 days, 1 synodic month would be : 29 499/940 days.
Also, 76 years =365*76+76/4= 27759 days, and likewise 940 months = 29*940+499=27759 days.

THE SUN AND THE MOON RETURN TO THEIR ORIGINAL POSITIONS. In other words, 76 years = 940 months, meaning that 76 years is a cycle, or the sun and moon both together return to their original positions after 76 years. The 19-year-cycle was used in the "Six Early Calendars"(古六历,Gǔlìulì).

And a 600 year cycle with 221 intercalary months is used in the Yuánshǐ Calendar in the Liang(N) dynasty(401－439, established in Liangzhou). And then a 391 year cycle with 144 intercalary months was used in the Dàmíng Calendar from the Ninth year of Tianjian(天监九年, 510) in the Liang Dynasty(502-557, established in Jiankang).

After the Délíng Calendar of the Tang Dynasty (618-907, established in Chang'an), the calendar was made with the true new moon, the cycle could no longer be used to determine the intercalary months.
~ Susan Lynne Schwenger

xxxxxxx

"The Hindu calendar, always has a month start with the day of The Full Moon
and it ends with the evening of the day before the next full moon."

~ Susan Lynne Schwenger

xxxxxxx

TONY, any comments on The Durinal Cycle
~except that an ancient day, or even a modern day isn't exactly 24 hours ?
Thanks, Susan

xxxxxxx

i see, this calculation (posted on page 1)
9,360,000 days = 9,360,000/360= 26000 = 5 x 5200
or,
9,360,360 days = 9,360,360/360=26001 = 5 x 5200.20
~ Susan Lynne Schwenger & Tony Bermanseder

xxxxxxx

Tàichū (太初, "Grand Inception" Calendar - Emperor Wu - Han Dynasty (365 385/1539 days) & The Luner Month as 29 43/81 days - 19 solar years = 235 months

The Metonic Cycle of 19 solar years, equal to 235 months.
"Six Early Calendars"(古六历,Gǔlìulì) of 19 solar years, equal to 235 months

Yuánshǐ Calendar in the Liang(N) dynasty(401－439, established in Liangzhou) - 600 year cycle with 221 intercalary months

The Dàmíng Calendar from the Ninth year of Tianjian(天监九年, 510) in the Liang Dynasty(502-557, established in Jiankang) - 391 year cycle with 144 intercalary months

The Délíng Calendar of the Tang Dynasty (618-907, established in Chang'an), the calendar was made with the true new moon, the cycle could no longer be used to determine the intercalary months.

The Sixty Year Cycle of The Chinese Astrology
9,360,360 Ancient Days/360 Ancient Days=26,001 Ancient Years of 360 Ancient Days
9,360,000 Ancient Days/360 Ancient Days=26,000 Ancient Years of 360 Ancient Days
5 cycles fit into this:
9,360,000 days = 9,360,000/360= 26000 = 5 x 5200
or,
9,360,360 days = 9,360,360/360=26001 = 5 x 5200.20

 

Dying life of the tribe. Photographer decided to travel the world for 3 years, visiting 35 tribes in

Dying life of the tribe.
Photographer decided to travel the world for 3 years, visiting 35 tribes in all 5 continents.

http://9gag.com/gag/azb103j
The pictures are amazing:

 

COMET STORIES - posting them all here to this thread​

Wayne Herschel Author
SUSANakaTHE13THBRIDGE - Posted Nov 7th
Wayne Herschel Author

ISON COUNTDOWN... FACTS... LIVE WATCH - INTERACTIVE
TODAY ISON WENT RIGHT THROUGH EARTH'S ORBIT...

If Earth was in that position today it could have been the end of the world!
There are masses of false claims on ISON and now you can interact with it live
every day and get all the viewing updates as we countdown to the two high risk possibilities
that media and scientists are not keen to speculate on.

DATA... 5km wide nucleus
Passes close to Sun Nov 30th
RISK 1 EVALUATION DEC 1ST... did it fragment ... or not...
ARE ANY FRAGMENTS EARTH BOUND?
December 25th ... spectacular view date over Christmas
RISK 2 EVALUATION JAN 12th... SPECTACULAR METEOR SHOWER
POSSIBLE DEBRIS AMONGST THE DUST.
LIVE WATCH INTERACTIVE LINK... http://www.cometison2013.co.uk/interactive-model/
— with Samoil Tzar.

• Debi Hooper ClarkKinda thought it might be LOL
  
  Debi Hooper ClarkWe expect your educated colorful updates as it nears the Sun
  Bill HollenbachWill do.
  Wayne Herschel AuthorElaine... yeah... there were a lot of lies posted about the comet as Nibiru or UFO...
  here is the explanation for what you referred to...
• SCIENTISTS HAVE A STAB AT UFO & NIBIRU FOLLOWERS:
  A few months ago scientists did the unthinkable... they presented 3 hubble space images as one
  and made it look like a UFO... It was lapped up like crazy. The three images were as follows:
  1) approaching perfect image shot (image streaks)
  2) perfect image position (no streak)
  3) moving away from perfect position (image streaks)
  Put 3 together as one image and it looks like a V shape UFO...
  The Nibiru cult websites went ballistic. Over 100 websites screamed out conspiracy!
  http://www.examiner.com/article/is-comet-ison-accompanied-by-ufo
• 
  
  Is Comet ISON accompanied by UFOs?
  http://www.examiner.com/article/is-comet-ison-accompanied-by-ufos
  The latest news reports reveal Comet C/2012 S1 (ISON)
  is brightening and may yet become the comet of the century. But is ISON a comet?
• Bill HollenbachYup, as far as the sun is away... time to panic.. heeeeheheheheheheh
• Wayne Herschel AuthorViewing is early morning East above Sun Rise here in the South... Bill...
  can folks see similar in the North early morning before sunrise or will they only see it a week later?
  HollenbachNope, from South America, ie Texas etc, it is visible in the South East.
• Wayne Herschel AuthorWhen will folks in the North start seeing it Bill?
• Wayne Herschel AuthorLIVE WATCH INTERACTIVE PAGE
  UPDATED BY SCIENTIST AND ASTRONOMERS...
  use your curser on the image and try positions and views as you please
  http://www.cometison2013.co.uk/interactive-model/
  
  Interactive 3D Model of Comet ISON - Comet ISON 2013
  www.cometison2013.co.uk
  Interactive 3D Model of Comet ISON. This 3D model provided by Solar System Scope shows Comet ISON's
  location and path for any given date.
  Bill HollenbachAround December, during the day, if it " behaves"
  Elaine SchweersThank you Wayne The info that I have seen is not coming from Scientist as they are as bewildered
  as most people are. I enjoy your continuous input as I do respect your knowledge as well as I know of your experiences
  that you have had are so important as we all have much to share as the truth is unveiled. Thank you for being you.
  
  Wayne Herschel Author:
  IMAGE EXPLANATION... THE NEXT 2 MTHS...
  Earth is moving towards the area where the comet is right now... RIGHT IN EARTH ORBIT PATH.
  
  As ISON heads towards the close encounter with the sun
  We head towards the crossing point on January 12th (2014) where it is right now.
  
  Some Scientists believe the debris trail field will mainly be dust and will possibly result in a stunning meteor shower
  beating all records over the last 70 years. Some say a large rock or two could have been discharged too
  
  so some big meteors perhaps like a meter wide or so at the most which will probably burn up.
  
  November the 30th it take only a day to pass around the back of the sun due to its incredible speed...
  December the first astronomers will wait and watch to see if it was lost falling into the sun
  and consumed or if it fragmented... or if it stayed solid and intact.
  
  Over December if the comet is intact or fragmented and not lost or around the 25th
  it will probably be at its brightest to view... maybe beating records again over the last 70 or so years
  and even be partly visible with daylight at the most.
  
  Márton Molnár-Göb:
  
  ONE OF THE BEST AND MOST RELIABLE PAGES ON COMET ISON
  - with regularly updated magnitude graphics
  
  http://www.aerith.net/comet/catalog/2012S1/2012S1.html

• 
  
  C/2012 S1 ( ISON )
  
  Wayne Herschel AuthorLiliya Kamala ...
  I had to remove that mass of false claims as all were unfounded.
  Firstly the listing of ISON as a small solar system body is a bit of a silly classification choice of words
  by authorities to measure small 'bodies' 'anomalies' in our solar system.
  The plasma claims with Mars and everything else there is what I have been upset about.
  The videos and website lies and scams are rife to create fear and sensationalism
  so you go to their pages and click their adverts. They are making a lot of $ while creating chaos.
  
  We are happy to discuss one questionable claim at a time rather than a mass of stuff
  
  Scott Houdekshould that chart be in English???? Wayne Herschel Author
  Wayne Herschel AuthorScott... the one Marton posted?
  Scott HoudekOK thanks Wayne Herschel Author
  
  Wayne Herschel AuthorIm off to bed just now as I want to try photograph ISON tomorrow
  before Sun rise if there are no clouds. It will be through binoculars. A fiddly task but works well
  Scott Houdekgood night and GOOD LUCK!
  
  Márton Molnár-GöbScott, on that page all the important detail is in english
  and the numbers for dates are universal the title on magnitude images is in japanese
  but that's all, the timetable below it is in simple arabic numbers!

xxxxxxx

• Noelle RoeI find the timing suspect.
  It's very interesting that they come out with something like this at this time. Pretty weird...
  http://news.msn.com/science-technology/russian-fireball-shows-meteor-risk-may-be-bigger
  
  Russian fireball shows meteor risk may be bigger
• Meteors are probably four to five times more likely to strike
  Earth than scientists previously believed, according to a study published Wednesday.
  
  Jenn ArielaIncrease Earth Aura, let go greed and all bad human behaviours, reduce political disputes and violence,
  beware of order out of chaos. What will come will come, it's time humanity rise up and move forward.
• Scott HoudekI wish that where true
• Jenn ArielaIson is not there to destroy earth, it's evil human with greed who is destroying earth all the time..https://www.facebook.com/photo.php...
• 
  
• Timeline Photos
• Order out of Chaos “Our society is run by insane people for insane objectives.
• I think we’re being run by maniacs for manical ends and I think I’m liable to be put away as insane for expressing that.
• That’s what’s insane about it.” John Lennon Will the Brotherhood actually play the fake alien invasion card?
• No one knows for sure what the future will bring, but based on their history, the elites doubtless hope to continue their process of “Order out of Chaos,” to further centralize and globalize their control.
• This term Order out of Chaos, in Latin Ordo ab Chao, is the slogan of the 33rd degree of Freemasonry. “Secret Societies have a great motto ‘Ordo Ab Chao’ meaning ‘Order Out of Chaos’.
• Agendas are formulated designed to give the powerful more power. Chaos is created, and media blitzed.
• Then cries go out for solution. Laws are passed which could never have been passed without the chaos.
• The order, has reigned through deception of the masses, and the agenda is accomplished.” –James Arthur, “Mushrooms and Mankind” (38) “The Latin inscription on the banner around the Judaic eagle's head (below the Star of David) E Pluribus Unum ("From the Many – the One") In other words, first they combined all the ancient stellar cults, now they’re going to combine the world’s governments, militaries, currencies, banks.” Michael Tsarion, “Astrotheology and Sidereal Mythology”
• The Illuminati New World Order can and will be defeated through a world wide awakening.
• Once the world’s population understands the information presented by people who are willing
  to stand out to tell the truths, these secret society rule will by necessity be phased out.
• As the populations awaken, the Brotherhood and their conspiratorial control mechanisms that have worked to enslave mankind for thousands of years will quickly crumble. We must shun secret societies and shame on their members.
• Shun the world’s “royalty,” their knights and vassals, shame on their spineless lapdogs. It is high time for free humanity to make a stand.
• Support smaller communities and be independent. Don't believe in what ever government tells you.
• Don’t buy their pharmaceuticals, don’t drink their fluoridated water, and don’t take their vaccines.
• Don’t eat their junk, genetically modified, nutrient starved food. Support your local businesses
  and not from huge corporations and department stores. Don’t watch their main stream media “programs” or tune into their “channels.” Don’t buy into their propaganda, mind control “news,” their magazines, or expert opinions.
• Don’t be scared of their bogeymen, fall for their patsies, or accept their problem-reaction-solutions.
• Refuse RFID chips and the big brother surveillance society. As they phase from fiat currency to their cashless credit based system, we phase into precious metals and old-fashioned trade with locals with barter.
• The key to overcoming the conspiratorial, oppressive world system is by focusing on and improving your own local systems.
• Be a capable Anarchy follow your own rules and up hold and build a high moral awareness community.
• We’ve given our responsibility away and it’s time to reclaim it. “One of the penalties for refusing to participate in politics is that you end up being governed by your inferiors.”~Plato The biggest obstacle in overcoming the conspiracy is information.
• The most important thing to do is continue educating yourself and start awakening others to the global conspiracy.
• Educate your friends, family, neighbors and coworkers.
• Share this message to everyone you can. Make your own copies (I hereby give permission) and pass it on to everyone you know!
• By: New Meritocracy Council

• Jenn Ariela
• 
  
• Timeline Photos
  Raise your Positive Vibrations, Reduce Violence and Keep Your Balance.
  By: Jenn Ariela
• Jenn Ariela
  
  KNOWING Message 2. Humanity is in great transition and transformation in high ...See More
  Alis Jacobdid Mars just cop a direct hit????
  · Edited · Like
• 
  Susan Lynne Schwenger
  PREDICITON of 16 DEC 2013 COMET
  made by Susan Lynne Schwenger on 06 JUNE 2010
  - however, Comet Ison was NOT discovered until 2012???
  
  http://www.thuban.spruz.com/forums/...EB42&fid=ED59E199-9135-438D-A673-29A145698BA9
  original predictions on her website:
  
  "That a comet will come to mark the end of the grand cycle
  and, will be at its zenith on 16 Dec 2013'
  - Predicted 06-JUNE-2010
• 
  
• PREDICITON of 16 DEC 2013 COMET made by Susan Lynne Schwenger on 06 JUNE 2010
  www.thuban.spruz.com
  Agency for the Reconfiguration of Cosmic Archetypes for Cosmic Metamorphosis
  
  Susan Lynne SchwengerCalendar Calibrations are here:
  
  Calendar Calibrations are here:
  http://www.thuban.spruz.com/forums/...C39E-7270-4160-80DE-61A397C1A988&pageindex=75

xxxxxxx

Wayne Herschel AuthorAwe...
Cloudy this morning... missed viewing ISON
FOR AUSTRALIA AND S.AFRICA VIEWERS...
In a week or so it will be visible early morning before sun rise but best seen through binoculars...
Here is the best ISON data by an Aus astronomer:
http://www.abc.net.au/.../articles/2013/11/01/3880970.htm

Petey SymoneI cannot open that Aussie Astronomer link...Is anyone else having trouble?

Wayne Herschel AuthorBill Hollenbach... as our resident astronomer here...
what times are best to view ISON in south Africa?
Here is the most recent image from Astro Bob in Australia...
She sure is a blue green comet and sounds close to the Hopi prophecy of the sign of the return of the Katchinas..
. star visitors. http://astrobob.areavoices.com/.../ISON-jaeger-Oct.-31.jpg

xxxxxxx


PREDICITON of 16 DEC 2013 COMET
made by Susan Lynne Schwenger on 06 JUNE 2010
- however, Comet Ison was NOT discovered until 2012???

http://www.thuban.spruz.com/forums/...EB42&fid=ED59E199-9135-438D-A673-29A145698BA9
original predictions on her website:

"That a comet will come to mark the end of the grand cycle
and, will be at its zenith on 16 Dec 2013'
- Predicted 06-JUNE-2010



Calendar Calibrations are here:
http://www.thuban.spruz.com/forums/...C39E-7270-4160-80DE-61A397C1A988&pageindex=75



PREDICITON of 16 DEC 2013 COMET
made by Susan Lynne Schwenger on 06 JUNE 2010
- however, Comet Ison was NOT discovered until 2012???

http://www.thuban.spruz.com/forums/...EB42&fid=ED59E199-9135-438D-A673-29A145698BA9
original predictions on her website:

"That a comet will come to mark the end of the grand cycle
and, will be at its zenith on 16 Dec 2013'
- Predicted 06-JUNE-2010



Calendar Calibrations are here:
http://www.thuban.spruz.com/forums/...C39E-7270-4160-80DE-61A397C1A988&pageindex=75

xxxxxxx

Wayne Herschel AuthorHopi Prophecy... the blue comet...
http://comet2012.com/hopi-indians-blue-star/
Hopi Indians Blue Star Comet ISON 2013 2014 | Comet 2012 S1 - ISON
comet2012.comHopi Indians :
The last prophecy Comet 2012 S1 (ISON)And the Ninth and Last Sign
-You will hear of a dwelling-place in the heavens, above the earth,
that shall fall with a great crash. It will appear as a blue star.
Very soon after this, the ceremonies of my people will cease.
(under edit -- add rest of article to post)

xxxxxxx

COMMENTS:

The Flash
07/09/2013 11:03pm
“The Blue Star”
March 22nd, 2013

The following visions were given to me during the rosary at the Marian Movement of Priests cenacle (March 22nd) ,
and the message was given to me after receiving the Eucharist April 14th):

I was shown over several consecutive weekly MMP cenacle’s, a pair of scales…
evenly balanced at first..then one side suddenly went down very quickly…..
and next I saw a huge hammer slam down on the scale that was weighted down…
which was symbolic of the sins weighing down the scale of course …..
the hammer symbolic of God’s justice….
I was told..that our infrastructure will go down soon.

Then it was as if I was “flying” (for lack of better description) behind a comet…
only this comet had blue tinges around the edges..and was actually blue…
.and it had a blue tail…..and I heard…
”the blue star will be upon you soon….”
I have been shown this comet many years ago…
.but tonight is the first time Jesus has called it “blue star”….
I have never been given a name for this comet….
so I was quite taken aback.

In the blackness of space this ball of (seemingly like) fire, the comet, the heavenly body passing very, very close to earth……
but this time it was as if I was in a field, and I was actually hoeing weeds, then I look over to my left and I see this heavenly body pass on the horizon, not falling to earth, but “passing by”……
then there were scenes of intense devastation, having come from earthquakes, volcanoes, floods, magma, tsunamis, wind….
very high winds….it was if the trees were almost bent in two……

Then I “felt” more than heard the thunder that will accompany the passing of this comet; this thunder will be a sign of the approaching moment when we will be oblivious of any person around us as we experience the illumination of our consciences; a moment in time that will stop as each person experiences it at the very same time; it will be like our “particular” judgment, that judgment every soul goes through at death.

We will be shown everything as a movie. I am sure you have heard and read many “after death” experiences of people coming back and sharing that their life “passed before them”….that is what we will experience. ”

Another statement by “Sadie Jaramillo”
Message to John Leary

October 8, 1999

Jesus said: “My people, you will see a major celestial event when a part of a comet will effect the earth, but not the final chastisement. Many will be frightened by this event, but it will coincide with My Warning experience.

As you all see your sins and how I would judge you, some may be frightened also to see their judgment in how you offended Me. Everyone will be given a knowledge of My love and a new sense of right and wrong according to My ways you will be given a second chance to reform your lives and make your souls right with Me in Confession.

Those, that do not heed this Warning and follow the Antichrist, will be led down the broad road to hell. Focus your love on Me in My Real Presence of the Host, and you will have the strength to endure the coming tribulation.”

Messages from this year 2013

Jesus said: “My people, awhile ago I gave you a message about the coming Ison comet as a sign of the Warning.

Today, I am telling you that this comet is not only a sign, but it is an omen of bad things coming
such as the evil of the Antichrist in the tribulation. You are seeing signs of war, signs of financial instability, and signs of riots in various countries . My faithful need to have all of their preparations ready for when you will have to leave for My refuges.

My refuge builders also need to put the finishing touches on their preparations for food, water, and bedding that will be shared with My pilgrims. My faithful should think of themselves as pilgrims because they are coming to a place of holy ground where there will be perpetual Adoration at every refuge.

They will have My angels protecting them, and they will be healed of all of their health problems
when they look upon My luminous cross in the sky.”

May 7 2013..Jesus said: “My people, some of you are aware of the Ison Comet that will come close to the earth around November and Decem ber. I showed you this in an earlier message, but I did not mention the significance of this comet. Your astronomers are telling you that this comet will appear as brighter than a full moon.

I told you that the meteor over Russia was a sign of a war coming. Now you are seeing how Israel is protecting itself by a second bombing of potential missiles in Syria that were headed to Hamas. I also gave you a sign of the coming financial problems after Pope Francis was elected. Now, I am telling you that this comet is a sign of the coming Warning. I wil
Reply

Dave
09/11/2013 12:26am

I know of these prophesies, and they are intriguing indeed. They are difficult to date, since they had no written Language as we know it. However they did make petroglyphs, and some are quite astonishing. Google "Holy Ghost Rock", it's in Utah as I recall.

Back in January when you posted your article, I generally would have agreed with your assessment.
The prophesies are interesting and thought provoking, but without a solid date and source they can't be considered completely credible. However, in May I had a wake-up call. And the wake-up calls have been pouring in ever since.

I suggest you reopen the case, so to say. I have Learned much about the Hopi since June. The first thing I Learned is I still have a LOT to Learn. Book of the Hopi is a good introduction. t's one of the oldest and most well-documented books on the subject, respected around the world, and well-received by the Hopi themselves.

The Hopi state, as recorded in this book, that the Blue Kachina (Saquasohuh) is a far away unseen star,not a space station or an asteroid impact (pg. 334). Until this unknown blue star appears in the sky, the 9th prophesy is not fulfilled. Breathing easier now?

Don't. It has appeared. Apparently it's been visible under the proper conditions since 2010. I'm sure you're naturally skeptical of this sort of thing, as am I. But I've consumed just about all there is available on the subject, there is something there, and indications are that it's getting closer, and is basically on our doorstep. If so, it will be visible to the whole world very soon. It's not ISON, although there may be a tie-in. This is something else, something eerie & bizarre. It's the kind of thing you hope & pray is just a Lense flare, or refraction.But it tracks the sun precisely, and seems to defy all known characteristics of an optical anomaly. Worse, the same object has been recorded by at Least two cameras, different models entirely. And yes, it's blue. I'm not sure if I can post the Links here, but I'll post the title of the video, and you just have search it on YouTube.

Without further adieu, meet what very possibly could be the Blue Star Kachina of Hopi Prophesy,
and final warning before Judgment Day...

These are time Lapse videos of a volcano in Costa Rica. The camera is positioned on top of a mountain, facing West, towards the volcano. You can see the volcanic steam rising, and the glow of the Lava at night.

Fast forward until you see the setting sun. Note the bright blue object. Please Let it be a Lense flare! Unfortunately it's there even when the sky is nearly overcast, and the camera is in the shadow! You will see it blink out briefly once, in one of the videos. I thought, aha, it is a Lense flare. Wrong. It's an eclipse. It has a moon. OMG!!!

"Actividad del Volcán Turrialba 20 Abril 2010 (Cámara OVSICORI)"
"Actividad del Volcán Turrialba 28 Enero 2010 (Cámara OVSICORI)"
"Actividad del Volcán Turrialba 30 Enero 2010 (Cámara OVSICORI)"
"Actividad del Volcán Turrialba 2527 Enero 2010 (Cámara OVSICORI)"

"And then shall appear the sign of the Son of man in heaven: and then shall all the tribes of the earth mourn" - Matthew 24:30

Documentaries:

"Blue Kachina and Its Moon"
Apr 20, 2013 - 35 min

"Planet X System Observations and Orbital Analysis"
Jul 28, 2013 - 90 min

Many alternative writers claim that the Hopi have “ancient” prophecies that foretold the Euro-American settlement
of the continental United States as well as its ultimate destruction

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http://melbrake.wordpress.com/2013/07/03/nasa-and-comet-ison-the-hopi-blue-star-comet/
NASA and Comet ISON: The Hopi Blue Star Comet

Posted on July 3, 2013by melbrake
The Hopi Blue Star Comet has been called many things such as Comet Ellen 2011 and Comet Holmes 2009.
But, could Comet ISON be the real Blue Star Comet predicted by the Hopi and other Native Americans.
NASA released new images (from Hubble, May 2013) of Comet ISON heralding through our multiverse at 48, 000 mph towards the Sun. Comet ISON should be visiable in our Earth skies (in the East, Northern Hemisphere) November 2013. To view check out the link:

http://nasawatch.com/archives/2013/07/4th-of-july-fir.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+nasawatch%2FAekt+%28NASA+Watch%29
More on Comet ISON:
http://melbrake.wordpress.com
http://comet2012.com/hopi-indians-blue-star/

Hopi Indians : The last prophecy Comet 2012 S1 (ISON)
And the Ninth and Last Sign - You will hear of a dwelling-place in the heavens, above the earth, that shall fall with a great crash. It will appear as a blue star. Very soon after this, the ceremonies of my people will cease.
After the last Signs the great destruction is coming. The world shall rock to and fro. The white man will battle against other people in other lands, with those who possessed the first light of wisdom (Asia). There will be many columns of smoke and fire such as White Feather has seen the white man make in the deserts not far from here. Only those which come will cause disease and a great dying.

Many of my people, understanding the prophecies, shall be safe. Those who stay and live in the places of my people also shall be safe. Then there will be much to rebuild. And soon, very soon afterward, Pahana will return (Christ). He shall bring with him the dawn of the Fifth World. He shall plant the seeds of his wisdom in their hearts. Even now the seeds are being planted. These shall smooth the way to the Emergence into the Fifth World.
kuhnible says:
10/18/2013 8:19am

What if the comet Halley was the Blue Kachina?
What if the the 9th sign of the Hopi was the falling of the Twin Towers?
What if Comet ISON is the Red Kachina?

http://melbrake.wordpress.com/2013/07/03/nasa-and-comet-ison-the-hopi-blue-star-comet/

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Wayne Herschel Author:
BREAKING UPDATE...
THERE IS AN INCA PROPHECY OF A FRAGMENTING COMET AND THE RETURN OF VIRACHOCHA!!!!

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BREAKING UPDATE:
LARGE METEOR OVER LA LAST NIGHT...
https://www.facebook.com/photo.php...



Timeline Photos
BREAKING: Huge Meteor Reported By Three People To Me here at @[143389385671837:274:Southern California Weather Authority.com]
that was directly over Los Angeles around the 7:45pm hour this evening ..
.
SOURCE LINK - http://www.theweatherspace.com/2013...outhern-california-skies-on-thursday-evening/

Did you see it? Hear any reports? Let me know below and ask your family or friends if they saw or heard anything. .
By: Southern California Weather Authority.com

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Comet ISON, Passing In 2013, Could Be Brighter Than Moon​

Posted: September 27, 2012


A new comet named C/ 2012 S1 (ISON) could be brighter than the moon when it passes the Earth in 2013. In fact, scientists believe it may be so bright that it is visible during the day. While some astronomers are skeptical about comet ISON’s brightness, others like Karl Battams, a scientist at the Naval Research Laboratory who monitors comets for the NASA-supported Sungrazer Comet Project, assure that we should watch for it, reports NBC News. Battams stated:

“This is one to watch, definitely. But the astronomy community in general tries not to overhype
these things. Potentially it will be amazing. Potentially it will be a huge dud.”

ISON’s discovery was based off of imagery collected on Friday by the International Scientific Optical Network’s 16-inch Santel reflecting telescope in Russia, and the new comet soon rose to the top of the charts. Since the superstar comet’s discovery, scientists have been going back through their files to locate and “pre-discovery” images, so that they can calculate ISON’s orbit.

The National Post notes that Ernesto Guido, Giovanni Sostero & Nick Howes, who first discovered the comet, stated: “Comet C/2012 S1 (ISON) will get to within 0.012AU of the Sun (extremely close) at the end of November 2013 and then to ~0.4AU from Earth at the beginning of January 2014!”

AU is short for an Astronomical Unit, and it the approximate distance between the Earth and our Sun (about 1.1 million miles). The astronomers continued, “According to its orbit, this comet might become a naked-eye object in the period November 2013 – January 2014.” Because of its closeness to the sun, comet ISON could be brighter than the full moon, which Astronomy Magazine’s Michael E. Bakich asserts that it “probably will become the brightest comet anyone alive has ever seen.”

Over the next year, as comet ISON approaches, we can expect it to be compared with the Great Comet of 2007, and even the Great Comet of 1680. Of course, we can also expect mumbles about past letdowns, such as Comet Kohoutek and Comet Elenin. Despite this, we may still be treated to an awesome view come November of 2013.

Read more at http://www.inquisitr.com/345870/comet-ison-passing-in-2013-could-be-brighter-than-moon/#AZk7tdkufmUQZ55U.99

Comet ISON Will Be Visible During The Day, Discoverers Announce
Posted: 09/26/2012 8:33 am EDT Updated: 09/26/2012 8:33 am EDT

By: Joe Rao
Published: 09/26/2012 07:12 AM EDT on SPACE.com

A newly discovered comet has the potential to put on a dazzling celestial display late next year, when it will be so bright you may be able to see it briefly in the daytime sky.




Comet C/2012 S1 (ISON) photographed at the RAS Observatory near Mayhill, NM on Sept. 22, 2012,
by amateur astronomers Ernesto Guido, Giovanni Sostero and Nick Howes of the Remanzacco Observatory.

The discovery of the object named Comet ISON was announced Monday (Sept. 24) by Russians Vitali Nevski and Artyom Novichonok, who detected it in photographs taken three days earlier using a 15.7-inch (0.4-meter) reflecting telescope of the International Scientific Optical Network (ISON), near Kislovodsk. The new comet is officially known as C/2012 S1.

When first sighted, Comet ISON was 625 million miles (1 billion kilometers) from Earth and 584 million miles (939 million km) from the sun, in the dim constellation of Cancer. It was shining at magnitude 18.8 on the reverse scale used by astronomers to measure the brightness of sky objects (the lower the number, the brighter the object). That makes the comet currently about 100,000 times fainter than the dimmest star that can be seen with the unaided eye.


This image shows the newfound comet C/2012 (ISON) as seen by the Remanzacco Observatory in Italy.

The image, taken by amateur astronomers Ernesto Guido, Giovanni Sostero and Nick Howes, is a confirmation view of the comet. But at its perihelion (its closest point to the sun), due on Nov. 28, 2013, the comet will come within 800,000 miles (1.2 million km) of the sun’s surface and could evolve into a dazzling object ? possibly bright enough to be visible for a short time in broad daylight. [Spectacular Comet Photos (Gallery)]

The most exciting aspect of this new comet concerns its preliminary orbit, which bears a striking resemblance to that of the “Great Comet of 1680.” That comet put on a dazzling show; it was glimpsed in daylight and later, as it moved away from the sun, it threw off a brilliantly long tail that stretched up from the western twilight sky after sunset like a narrow searchlight beam for some 70 degrees of arc.
(A person's clenched fist, held at arm’s length, covers roughly 10 degrees of sky.)



This NASA graphic shows the orbit and current position of comet C/2012 S1 (ISON).

The comet is at present located at 6.25 AU from the sun, with 1 AU being the distance from Earth to the sun. Image released Sept. 24, 2012. The fact that the orbits are so similar seems to suggest Comet ISON and the Great Comet of 1680 could related or perhaps even the same object.

Comet ISON will be barely visible to the unaided eye when it is in the predawn night sky, positioned against the stars of Leo in October 2013. On Oct. 16 it will be passing very near both Mars and the bright star Regulus — both can be used as benchmarks to sighting the comet. In November, it could be as bright as third-magnitude when it passes very close to the bright first-magnitude star Spica in Virgo.

The few days surrounding the comet’s closest approach to the sun on Nov. 28, 2013, are likely to be most interesting. It will whirl rapidly around the sun in a hairpin-like curve and perhaps becomes a dazzlingly bright (negative-magnitude) object. The comet will then whirl north after perihelion and become visible during December both in the evening sky after sunset and in the morning sky before sunrise. Just how bright it will be and how long the tail may get during this time frame is anybody’s guess, but there is hope that it could evolve into a memorable celestial showpiece.

And in case you haven’t checked your 2013 calendar, Nov. 28 is already a special day for those living in the United States: It is the Thanksgiving Day holiday. Which leads to the question: Will Comet ISON be a dazzler, or a turkey?

Joe Rao serves as an instructor and guest lecturer at New York's Hayden Planetarium. He writes about astronomy for The New York Times and other publications, and he is also an on-camera meteorologist for News 12 Westchester, New York.

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/09/26/comet-ison-visible_n_1915544.html

 

Calendar of ISLAM

Islamic Date

Names of the Months
​

1 Muharram
2 Safar
3 Rabi' al-awal
4 Rabi' al-Thaany
5 Jumaada al-awal
6 Jumaada al-Thaany
7 Rajab
8 Sha'baan
9 Ramadaan
10 Shawwal
11 Dhu al-Qi'dah
12 Dhu al-Hijjah

Important note: The Islamic day and month displayed here are approximate. The start of a month in the canonical Islamic calendar is based on the first physical sighting of the new moon at a given location, which depends on a number of factors which are difficult or impossible to compute, including weather and visual acuity of the observer. The date displayed above is computed based on the actual time of the new moon, which may occur a day or so before it is actually visible. Also, note that this date is computed relative to Universal Time, which is essentially equivalent to Greenwich Mean Time.
​

The starting point for the Islamic calendar was fixed at the date of the new moon during the first lunar month in the year in which Mohammed and his followers left Mecca for Medina (the Hegira). The abbreviation A.H. stands for 'Anno Hegirae' (Latin for the Year of the Hegira). The Hegira (which is actually pronounced Hijra) is often translated as 'the flight'; however this translation has been questioned by Islamic scholars; it probably means 'to break off from the relations or abandon one's own tribe.' The Hegira is believed to have occured on 20 September 622 C.E.

The Islamic calendar was created in 639 C.E. (A.H. 17) by the Second Caliph 'Umar ibn Al-Khattab (592-644 C.E.). The civil epoch (the zero date for the Islamic calendar) is July 16, 662 C.E., when the new moon was first visible in Arabia in the first lunar month (it actually became new the day before).

The day begins at sunset in the Islamic calendar.

The Islamic calendar is strictly based on lunar cycles. For this reason, each year is about 11 days short of a solar year. Hence the start of each month will be different from one year to the next. The Islamic calendar is used to determine important religious holidays such as the start and end of Ramadan. Therefore the date of these festivals rotate backwards through the solar year. This has been attributed to the fact that the Islamic calendar originated in the desert regions close to the equator. Seasonal differences are not as marked as in higher latitudes. Therefore it was less important that holidays synchronize with the solar year.

 

Solar Cycle, Solar Maximum etc.,

Solar maximum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_maximum

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFor the spacecraft, see Solar Maximum Mission.
Main article: Solar cycle (read next post)



The current prediction for Sunspot Cycle 24 gives a smoothed sunspot number maximum of about 66 in the Summer of 2013. The smoothed sunspot number has already reached 67 (in February 2012) due to the strong peak in late 2011 so the official maximum will be at least this high. The smoothed sunspot number has been flat over the last four months. We are currently over four years into Cycle 24. The current predicted and observed size makes this the smallest sunspot cycle since Cycle 14 which had a maximum of 64.2 in February of 1906. NASA

Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun. During solar maximum, large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun's irradiance output grows by about 0.07%.^[1] The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns.^{[citation needed]}

At solar maximum, the Sun's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles.^{[citation needed]} The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next, with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years.


Three recent solar cycles

Large solar flares often occur during a maximum. For example, the Solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights could be seen as far south as Rome, approximately 42° north ofthe equator.

Contents

• 1 Predictions
• 2 Film
• 3 Grand solar minima and maxima
• 4 See also
• 5 References

Predictions

Predictions of a future maximum's timing and strength are very difficult; predictions vary widely. The last solar maximum was in 2000. In 2006 NASA initially expected a solar maximum in 2010 or 2011, and thought that it could be the strongest since 1958.^[2] However, more recent projections say the maximum should arrive in autumn of 2013 and be the smallest sunspot cycle since 1906.^[3] The un-smoothed monthly sunspot number was still rising as of March 2014.^[4]

Film

IMAX documentary about solar maximum called Solarmax.^[5]
NASA CME documentary X class Corona Mass Ejection 2012-07-14 documentary

Grand solar minima and maxima

Main article: Solar variation
Grand solar maxima occur when several solar cycles exhibit greater than average activity for decades or centuries. Solar cycles still occur during these grand solar maximum periods but the intensity of those cycles are more intense. Grand solar maxima have shown some correlation with global and regional climate changes.

400 year history of sunspot numbers.​

Solar minimum events and approximate dates

Event	Start	End
Homeric minimum [6]	950BC	800BC
Oort minimum (see Medieval Warm Period)	1040	1080
Medieval maximum (see Medieval Warm Period)	1100	1250
Wolf minimum	1280	1350
Spörer Minimum	1450	1550
Maunder Minimum	1645	1715
Dalton Minimum	1790	1820
Modern Maximum	1900	present

A list of historical Grand minima of solar activity^[7] includes also Grand minima ca. 690 AD, 360 BC, 770 BC, 1390 BC, 2860 BC, 3340 BC, 3500 BC, 3630 BC, 3940 BC, 4230 BC, 4330 BC, 5260 BC, 5460 BC, 5620 BC, 5710 BC, 5990 BC, 6220 BC, 6400 BC, 7040 BC, 7310 BC, 7520 BC, 8220 BC, 9170 BC.

See also

• Solar wind
• Solar variation
• Solar minimum
• List of solar cycles – table of solar cycles
• Solar Maximum Mission

References

1. C. D. Camp and K. K. Tung (2007). "Surface warming by the solar cycle as revealed by the composite mean difference projection". Geophysical Research Letters 34: L14703. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3414703C. doi:10.1029/2007GL030207. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
2. "Solar Storm Warning", Science@NASA, 10 March 2006, Accessed 26 Mar. 2010
3. "NASA/Marshall Solar Physics - Solar Cycle Prediction". NASA. Retrieved 2012-01-13.
4. http://sidc.oma.be/sunspot-index-graphics/wolfjmms.php
5. "Solarmax (2000)". IMDB. Seattle, WA, USA: Amazon.com, Inc. Retrieved August 6, 2012.
6. Celia Martin-Puertas, Katja Matthes, Achim Brauer, Raimund Muscheler, Felicitas Hansen, Christof Petrick, Ala Aldahan, Göran Possnert & Bas van Geel (April 2, 2012). "Regional atmospheric circulation shifts induced by a grand solar minimum". Nature Geoscience 5 (6): 397–401. Bibcode:2012NatGe...5..397M. doi:10.1038/ngeo1460.
7. Usoskin, Ilya G.; Solanki, Sami K.; Kovaltsov, Gennady A. (2007). "Grand minima and maxima of solar activity: new observational constraints" (PDF). Astron. Astrophys. 471 (1): 301–9. arXiv:0706.0385. Bibcode:2007A&A...471..301U. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077704.

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Solar cycle

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the sunspot cycle. For 28-year cycle of Julian calendar, see Solar cycle (calendar).



400 year sunspot history




"The current prediction for Sunspot Cycle 24 gives a smoothed sunspot number maximum of about 69 in the late Summer of 2013. The smoothed sunspot number reached 68.9 in August 2013 so the official maximum will be at least this high. The smoothed sunspot number has been rising again towards this second peak over the last five months and has now surpassed the level of the first peak (66.9 in February 2012). Many cycles are double peaked but this is the first in which the second peak in sunspot number was larger than the first. We are currently over five years into Cycle 24. The current predicted and observed size makes this the smallest sunspot cycle since Cycle 14 which had a maximum of 64.2 in February of 1906."^[1] The monthly sunspot number was still rising as of March 2014.^[2]

The solar cycle (or solar magnetic activity cycle) is the periodic change in the Sun's activity (including changes in the levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material) and appearance (visible in changes in the number of sunspots, flares, and other visible manifestations). Solar cycles have an average duration of about 11 years. They have been observed (by changes in the sun's appearance and by changes seen on Earth, such as auroras) for hundreds of years.

Solar variation causes changes in space weather, weather, and climate on Earth. It causes a periodic change in the amount of irradiation from the Sun that is experienced on Earth.

It is one component of solar variation, the other being aperiodic fluctuations.



Powered by a hydromagnetic dynamo process, driven by the inductive action of internal solar flows, the solar cycle:

• Structures the Sun's atmosphere, its corona and the wind;
• Modulates the solar irradiance;
• Modulates the flux of short-wavelength solar radiation, from ultraviolet to X-ray;
• Modulates the occurrence frequency of solar flares, coronal mass ejections, and other geoeffective solar eruptive phenomena;
• Indirectly modulates the flux of high-energy galactic cosmic rays entering the solar system.

Contents

• 1 History
• 2 Phenomena, measurement, and causes
• 3 Effects of the solar cycle
  • 3.1 Surface magnetism
  • 3.2 Solar irradiance
  • 3.3 Short-wavelength radiation
  • 3.4 Solar radio flux
  • 3.5 Geoeffective eruptive phenomena
  • 3.6 Cosmic ray flux
  • 3.7 Effects on Earth
    • 3.7.1 Terrestrial organisms
    • 3.7.2 Radio communication
    • 3.7.3 Terrestrial climate
  • 3.8 Effects on spacecraft
• 4 See also
• 5 References
• 6 External links

History



Samuel Heinrich Schwabe (1789–1875). German astronomer, discovered the solar cycle through extended observations of sunspots



Rudolf Wolf (1816–1893), Swiss astronomer, carried out historical reconstruction of solar activity back to the seventeenth century

The solar cycle was discovered in 1843 by Samuel Heinrich Schwabe, who after 17 years of observations noticed a periodic variation in the average number of sunspots seen from year to year on the solar disk. Rudolf Wolf compiled and studied these and other observations, reconstructing the cycle back to 1745, eventually pushing these reconstructions to the earliest observations of sunspots by Galileo and contemporaries in the early seventeenth century. Starting with Wolf, solar astronomers have found it useful to define a standard sunspot number index, which continues to be used today.

Until recently it was thought that there were 28 cycles in the 309 years between 1699 and 2008, giving an average length of 11.04 years, but recent research has showed that the longest of these (1784–1799) seems actually to have been two cycles,^[3][4] so that the average length is only around 10.66 years. Cycles as short as 9 years and as long as 14 years have been observed, and in the double cycle of 1784-1799 one of the two component cycles had to be less than 8 years in length. Significant variations in amplitude also occur. Solar maximum and solar minimum refer respectively to epochs of maximum and minimum sunspot counts. Individual sunspot cycles are partitioned from one minimum to the next.

Following the numbering scheme established by Wolf, the 1755–1766 cycle is traditionally numbered "1". The period between 1645 and 1715, a time during which very few sunspots were observed, is a real feature, as opposed to an artifact due to missing data.^[5] This epoch is now known as the Maunder minimum, after Edward Walter Maunder, who extensively researched this peculiar event, first noted by Gustav Spörer. In the second half of the nineteenth century it was also noted (independently) by Richard Carrington and by Spörer that as the cycle progresses, sunspots appear first at mid-latitudes, and then closer and closer to the equator until solar minimum is reached. This pattern is best visualized in the form of the so-called butterfly diagram, first constructed by the husband-wife team of E. Walter and Annie Maunder in the early twentieth century (see graph below). Images of the Sun are divided into latitudinal strips, and the monthly-averaged fractional surface of sunspots calculated. This is plotted vertically as a color-coded bar, and the process is repeated month after month to produce this time-latitude diagram.



The sunspot butterfly diagram. This modern version is constructed (and regularly updated) by the solar group at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center.

The physical basis of the solar cycle was elucidated in the early twentieth century by George Ellery Hale and collaborators, who in 1908 showed that sunspots were strongly magnetized (this was the first detection of magnetic fields outside the Earth), and in 1919 went on to show that the magnetic polarity of sunspot pairs:

• Is always the same in a given solar hemisphere throughout a given sunspot cycle;
• Is opposite across hemispheres throughout a cycle;
• Reverses itself in both hemispheres from one sunspot cycle to the next.

Hale's observations revealed that the solar cycle is a magnetic cycle with an average duration of 22 years. However, because very nearly all manifestations of the solar cycle are insensitive to magnetic polarity, it remains common usage to speak of the "11-year solar cycle".

Half a century later, the father-and-son team of Harold Babcock and Horace Babcock showed that the solar surface is magnetized even outside of sunspots; that this weaker magnetic field is to first order a dipole; and that this dipole also undergoes polarity reversals with the same period as the sunspot cycle (see graph below). These various observations established that the solar cycle is a spatiotemporal magnetic process unfolding over the Sun as a whole.




Time vs. solar latitude diagram of the radial component of the solar magnetic field, averaged over successive solar rotation. The "butterfly" signature of sunspots is clearly visible at low latitudes. Diagram constructed (and regularly updated) by the solar group at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center.

Phenomena, measurement, and causes

Spots from two adjacent cycles can co-exist for some time, and since it was discovered that the Sun reverses magnetic polarity from one solar cycle to the next, spots from different cycles can be distinguished by direction of their magnetic field. However, it takes some months before a definite decision can be made as to the true date of solar minimum. One of the principal authorities that determine the date of the solar minimum is SIDC (the Solar Influences Data Analysis Center), which is located in Belgium and works with agencies such as NASA and ESA.

The most important information today comes from SOHO (a project of international cooperation between ESA and NASA), such as the MDI magnetogram, where the solar "surface" magnetic field can be seen.

The basic causes of the solar variability and its cycles are still under debate, with some researchers suggesting a link with the tidal forces due to the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn,^[6][7] or due to the solar inertial motion.^[8][9] Another cause of Sun spots can be solar jet stream "torsional oscillation".

Patterns have been noted in solar cycles. For example, the Waldmeier effect is the phenomenon that cycles with larger maximum amplitudes tend to take less time to reach their maxima than cycles with smaller amplitudes;^[10] there is also a negative correlation between maximum amplitudes and the lengths of earlier cycles, which allows a degree of prediction.^[11]

Effects of the solar cycle

The Sun's magnetic field structures its atmosphere and outer layers all the way through the corona and into the solar wind. Its spatiotemporal variations lead to a host of phenomena collectively known as solar activity. All of solar activity is strongly modulated by the solar magnetic cycle, since the latter serves as the energy source and dynamical engine for the former.



Activity cycles 21, 22 and 23 seen in sunspot number index, TSI, 10.7cm radio flux, and flare index. The vertical scales for each quantity have been adjusted to permit overplotting on the same vertical axis as TSI. Temporal variations of all quantities are tightly locked in phase, but the degree of correlation in amplitudes is variable to some degree.

<sup>cont'd page 2 of 2

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part 2 of 2

Surface magnetism

Sunspots may exist anywhere from a few days to a few months, but they eventually decay, and this releases magnetic flux in the solar photosphere. This magnetic field is dispersed and churned by turbulent convection, and solar large-scale flows. These transport mechanisms lead to the accumulation of the magnetized decay products at high solar latitudes, eventually reversing the polarity of the polar fields (notice how the blue and yellow fields reverse in the graph above).

The dipolar component of the solar magnetic field is observed to reverse polarity around the time of solar maximum, and reaches peak strength at the solar minimum. Sunspots, on the other hand, are produced from a strong toroidal (longitudinally directed) magnetic field within the solar interior. Physically, the solar cycle can be thought of as a regenerative loop where the toroidal component produces a poloidal field, which later produces a new toroidal component of sign such as to reverse the polarity of the original toroidal field, which then produces a new poloidal component of reversed polarity, and so on.

Solar irradiance

The total solar irradiance (TSI) is the amount of solar radiative energy incident on the Earth's upper atmosphere. TSI variations were undetectable until satellite observations began in late 1978. Radiometers carried on satellites from the 1970s to the 2000s^[12] has shown that solar irradiance varies systematically over the 11-year sunspot cycle, both in total irradiance and in the relative components of the irradiance (UV Light ratios to Visible Light Ratios). The solar luminosity is about 0.07 percent brighter during solar maximum than during solar minimum but observations from spacecraft in the 2000s showed that the ratio of ultraviolet to visible light is much more variable than previously thought.^[13]

The major finding of satellite observations is that TSI varies in phase with the solar magnetic activity cycle^[14] with an amplitude of about 0.1% and an average value of about 1366 W/m² (the "solar constant"). Variations about the average up to −0.3% are caused by large sunspot groups and of +0.05% by large faculae and bright network on a week to 10 day timescale.^[15] (see TSI variation graphics.^[16]) TSI variations over the several decades of continuous satellite observation show small but detectable trends.^[17][18]

TSI is higher at solar maximum, even though sunspots are darker (cooler) than the average photosphere. This is caused by magnetized structures other than sunspots during solar maxima, such as faculae and active elements of the "bright" network, that are brighter (hotter) than the average photosphere. They collectively overcompensate for the irradiance deficit associated with the cooler but less numerous sunspots. The primary driver of TSI changes on solar rotational and sunspot cycle timescales is the varying photospheric coverage of these radiatively active solar magnetic structures.

Short-wavelength radiation


A solar cycle: a montage of ten years' worth of Yohkoh SXT images, demonstrating the variation in solar activity during a sunspot cycle, from after August 30, 1991, to September 6, 2001. Credit: the Yohkoh mission of ISAS (Japan) and NASA (US).

With a temperature of 5870 kelvins, the photosphere of the Sun emits a very small proportion of radiation in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and above. However, hotter upper layers of the Sun's atmosphere (chromosphere and corona) emit more short-wavelength radiation. Since the upper atmosphere is not homogeneous and contains significant magnetic structure, the solar ultraviolet (UV), EUV and X-ray flux varies markedly in the course of the solar cycle.

The photo montage to the left illustrates this variation for soft X-ray, as observed by the Japanese satellite Yohkoh from after August 30, 1991, at the peak of cycle 22, to September 6, 2001, at the peak of cycle 23. Similar cycle-related variations are observed in the flux of solar UV or EUV radiation, as observed, for example, by the SOHO or TRACE satellites.

Even though it only accounts for a minuscule fraction of total solar radiation, the impact of solar UV, EUV and X-ray radiation on the Earth's upper atmosphere is profound. Solar UV flux is a major driver of stratospheric chemistry, and increases in ionizing radiation significantly affect ionosphere-influenced temperature and electrical conductivity.

Solar radio flux

Emission from the Sun at centimetric (radio) wavelength is due primarily to coronal plasma trapped in the magnetic fields overlying active regions.^[19] The F10.7 index is a measure of the solar radio flux per unit frequency at a wavelength of 10.7 cm, near the peak of the observed solar radio emission. F10.7 is often expressed in SFU or solar flux units (1 SFU = 10⁻²² W m⁻² Hz⁻¹). It represents a measure of diffuse, nonradiative heating of the coronal plasma trapped by magnetic fields over active regions. It is an excellent indicator of overall solar activity levels and correlates well with solar UV emissions.

The solar F10.7 index is measured daily at local noon in a bandwidth of 100 MHz centered on 2800 MHz at the Penticton site of the Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory (DRAO), Canada. The solar F10.7 cm record extends back to 1947, and is the longest direct record of solar activity available, other than sunspot-related quantities.^[20][21]

Sunspot activity has a major effect on long distance radio communications particularly on the shortwave bands although medium wave and low VHF frequencies are also affected. High levels of sunspot activity lead to improved signal propagation on higher frequency bands, although they also increase the levels of solar noise and ionospheric disturbances. These effects are caused by impact of the increased level of solar radiation on the ionosphere.

It has been suggested that 10.7 cm solar flux could interfere with point-to-point terrestrial communications.^[22]

Geoeffective eruptive phenomena



An overview of three solar cycles shows the relationship between the sunspot cycle, galactic cosmic rays, and the state of our near-space environment.^[23]

The solar magnetic field structures the corona, giving it its characteristic shape visible at times of solar eclipses. Complex coronal magnetic field structures evolve in response to fluid motions at the solar surface, and emergence of magnetic flux produced by dynamo action in the solar interior. For reasons not yet understood in detail, sometimes these structures lose stability, leading to coronal mass ejections into interplanetary space, or flares, caused by sudden localized release of magnetic energy driving copious emission of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation as well as energetic particles. These eruptive phenomena can have a significant impact on Earth's upper atmosphere and space environment, and are the primary drivers of what is now called space weather.

The occurrence frequency of coronal mass ejections and flares is strongly modulated by the solar activity cycle. Flares of any given size are some 50 times more frequent at solar maximum than at minimum. Large coronal mass ejections occur on average a few times a day at solar maximum, down to one every few days at solar minimum. The size of these events themselves does not depend sensitively on the phase of the solar cycle. A good recent case in point are the three large X-class flares having occurred in December 2006, very near solar minimum; one of these (an X9.0 flare on Dec 5) stands as one of the brightest on record.^[24]

Cosmic ray flux

The outward expansion of solar ejecta into interplanetary space provides overdensities of plasma that are efficient at scattering high-energy cosmic rays entering the solar system from elsewhere in the galaxy. Since the frequency of solar eruptive events is strongly modulated by the solar cycle, the degree of cosmic ray scattering in the outer solar system varies in step. As a consequence, the cosmic ray flux in the inner solar system is anticorrelated with the overall level of solar activity. This anticorrelation is clearly detected in cosmic ray flux measurements at the Earth's surface.



A drawing of a sunspot in the Chronicles of John of Worcester.

Some high-energy cosmic rays entering Earth's atmosphere collide hard enough with molecular atmospheric constituents to cause occasionally nuclear spallation reactions. Some of the fission products include radionuclides such as ¹⁴C and ¹⁰Be, which settle down on Earth's surface. Their concentration can be measured in ice cores, allowing a reconstruction of solar activity levels into the distant past.^[25] Such reconstructions indicate that the overall level of solar activity since the middle of the twentieth century stands amongst the highest of the past 10,000 years, and that Maunder minimum-like epochs of suppressed activity, of varying durations have occurred repeatedly over that time span.

Effects on Earth

Terrestrial organisms
Main article: Solar variation

The impact of the solar cycle on living organisms has been investigated (see chronobiology). Some researchers claim to have found connections with human health.^[26][27]

The amount of ultraviolet UVB light at 300 nm reaching the Earth varies by as much as 400% over the solar cycle due to variations in the protective ozone layer. In the stratosphere, ozone is continuously regenerated by the splitting of O₂ molecules by ultraviolet light. During a solar minimum, the decrease in ultraviolet light received from the Sun leads to a decrease in the concentration of ozone, allowing increased UVB to penetrate to the Earth's surface.^[28]

Radio communication
Main article: Skywave

Skywave modes of radio communication operate by bending (refracting) radio waves (electromagnetic radiation) through the Ionosphere. During the "peaks" of the solar cycle, the ionosphere becomes increasingly ionized by solar photons and cosmic rays. This affects the path (propagation) of the radio wave in complex ways which can either facilitate or hinder local and long distance communications. Forecasting of skywave modes is of considerable interest to commercial marine and aircraft communications, amateur radio operators, and shortwave broadcasters. These users utilize frequencies within the High Frequency or 'HF' radio spectrum which are most affected by these solar and ionospheric variances. Changes in solar output affect the maximum usable frequency, a limit on the highest frequency usable for communications.

Terrestrial climate
Main article: Solar variation

Both long-term and short-term variations in solar activity are hypothesized to affect global climate, but it has proven extremely challenging to directly quantify the link between solar variation and the earth’s climate.^[29] The topic continues to be a subject of active study.

Early research attempted to find a correlation between weather and sunspot activity, mostly without notable success.^[30] Later research has concentrated more on correlating solar activity with global temperature. Most recently, research suggests that there may also be regional climate impacts due to the solar cycle. Measurements from the Spectral Irradiance Monitor on NASA’s Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment show that solar UV output is more variable over the course of the solar cycle than scientists had previously thought, resulting in, for example, colder winters in the US and southern Europe and warmer winters in Canada and northern Europe during solar minima.^[31]

There are three suggested mechanisms by which solar variations are hypothesized to have an effect on climate:

• Solar irradiance changes directly affecting the climate ("Radiative forcing").
• Variations in the ultraviolet component. The UV component varies by more than the total, so if UV were for some (as yet unknown) reason having a disproportionate effect, this might cause an effect on climate.
• Effects mediated by changes in cosmic rays (which are affected by the solar wind) such as changes in cloud cover.

The sunspot cycle variation of 0.1% has small but detectable effects on the Earth’s climate.^[32] Work by Camp and Tung suggests that changes in solar irradiance correlates with a variation of ±0.1 K (±0.18°F) in measured average global temperature between the peak and minimum of the 11-year solar cycle.^[33]

The effect of solar variation at time scales longer than a solar cycle is also of interest to climate science. The current scientific consensus is that solar variations do not play a major role in determining present-day global warming,^[29] since the measured magnitude of recent solar variation is much smaller than the forcing due to greenhouse gases,^[34] but the level of understanding of solar impacts is low.^[35]

Effects on spacecraft

The coronal mass ejections ("CME") associated with solar flares produces a radiation flux of high-energy protons, sometimes known as solar cosmic rays. These can cause radiation damage to electronics and solar cells in satellites. The solar proton events also can cause single-event upset (SEU) events on electronics; at the same, the reduced flux of galactic cosmic radiation during solar maximum (see section "Cosmic ray flux" above) will decrease the high-energy component of particle flux.

If astronauts on a space mission are above the shielding effect produced by the Earth's magnetic field, the radiation from a CME would also be dangerous to humans; many future mission designs (e.g., for a Mars Mission) therefore incorporate a radiation-shielded "storm shelter" for astronauts to retreat to during such a radiation event.

In view of the problems in space flight occurring during high solar activity, prediction of the latter becomes more and more important. A particular method that relies on several consecutive cycles was established by Wolfgang Gleißberg.^[36]

See also

Sunlight List of solar cycles Formation and evolution of the Solar System

Sun life cycle Stellar evolution List of articles related to the Sun

References

NASA solar science

1. http://sidc.oma.be/sunspot-index-graphics/wolfjmms.php
2. Usoskin, I. G.; Mursula, K.; Arlt, R.; Kovaltsov, G. A. (2009). "A Solar Cycle Lost in 1793-1800: Early Sunspot Observations Resolve the Old Mystery". The Astrophysical Journal 700 (2): L154. arXiv:0907.0063. Bibcode:2009ApJ...700L.154U. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/700/2/L154. edit
3. "Centuries-old sketches solve sunspot mystery". New Scientist. 1 Aug 2009. p. 10.
4. Eddy, John A. (June 1976). "The Maunder Minimum". Science 192 (4245): 1189–1202. Bibcode:1976Sci...192.1189E. doi:10.1126/science.192.4245.1189. JSTOR 17425839. PMID 17771739.
5. H. Schwentek and W. Elling; Elling (July 1984). "A possible relationship between spectral bands in sunspot number and the space-time organization of our planetary system". Solar Physics 93 (2): 403–13. Bibcode:1984SoPh...93..403S. doi:10.1007/BF02270851.
6. Attila Grandpierre (December 3, 2004). "On the origin of solar cycle periodicity". Astrophysics and Space Science 243 (2): 393–400. Bibcode:1996Ap&SS.243..393G. doi:10.1007/BF00644709.
7. Charvátová I. (2000). "Can origin of the 2400-year cycle of solar activity be caused by solar inertial motion?" (PDF). Ann. Geophys. 18 (4): 399–405. Bibcode:2000AnGeo..18..399C. doi:10.1007/s00585-000-0399-x.
8. Charvatova, Hejda (2008-9). Possible role of the Solar inertial motion in climatic changes (PDF). CA: Bill Howell .
9. Waldmeier M., 1939, Astron. Mitt. Zurich, 14, 439
10. Zhan-Le Du1, Hua-Ning Wang and Xiang-Tao He, The Relation between the Amplitude and the Period of Solar Cycles, Chin. J. Astron. Astrophys. Vol. 6 (2006), No. 4, 489–494
11. Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor (ACRIM) solar irradiance monitoring 1978 to present (Satellite observations of total solar irradiance); access date 2012-02-03
12. "An influence of solar spectral variations on radiative forcing of climate". Nature 467 (7316). October 6, 2010.
13. Willson RC, Hudson HS; Hudson (1991). "The Sun's luminosity over a complete solar cycle". Nature 351 (6321): 42–4. Bibcode:1991Natur.351...42W. doi:10.1038/351042a0.
14. Willson R.C., Gulkis S., Janssen M., Hudson H.S., Chapman G.A.; Gulkis; Janssen; Hudson; Chapman (1981). "Observations of solar irradiance variability". Science 211 (4483): 700–2. Bibcode:1981Sci...211..700W. doi:10.1126/science.211.4483.700. PMID 17776650.
15. Total Solar Irradiance Graph from ACRIM page. ACRIM project web page.
16. Willson R.C., Mordvinov A.V.; Mordvinov (2003). "Secular total solar irradiance trend during solar cycles 21–23". Geophys. Res. Lett. 30 (5): 1199. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30e...3W. doi:10.1029/2002GL016038.
17. Scafetta N., Willson R.C. (2009). "ACRIM-gap and TSI trend issue resolved using a surface magnetic flux TSI proxy model". Geophys. Res. Lett. 36 (5): L05701. Bibcode:2009GeoRL..3605701S. doi:10.1029/2008GL036307.
18. Tapping K.F. (1987). "Recent solar radio astronomy at centimeter wavelength: the temporal variability of the 10.7-cm flux". J. Geophys. Res. 92 (D1): 829–838. Bibcode:1987JGR....92..829T. doi:10.1029/JD092iD01p00829.
19. John White and Ken Tapping (February 2012). "The Penticton Solar Flux Receiver". QST (The American Radio Relay League): 39–45.
20. Davies, Kenneth (1990). Ionospheric Radio. IEE Electromagnetic Waves Series #31. London, UK: Peter Peregrinus Ltd/The Institution of Electrical Engineers. p. 34. ISBN 0-86341-186-X.
21. "The Effect of 10.7 cm Solar Radiation on 2.4 GHz Digital Spread Spectrum Communications". NARTE News 17 (3). July–October 1999.
22. "Extreme Space Weather Events". National Geophysical Data Center.
23. "The Most Powerful Solar Flares Ever Recorded". Spaceweather.com.
24. Solanki, Sami K.; Usoskin, Ilya G.; Kromer, Bernd; Schüssler, Manfred; Beer, Jürg (2004). "Unusual activity of the Sun during recent decades compared to the previous 11,000 years" (PDF). Nature 431 (7012): 1084–7. Bibcode:2004Natur.431.1084S. doi:10.1038/nature02995. PMID 15510145.
25. Halberg, F; Cornélissen, G; Otsuka, K; Watanabe, Y; Katinas, GS; Burioka, N; Delyukov, A; Gorgo, Y; Zhao, Z (2000). "Cross-spectrally coherent ~10.5- and 21-year biological and physical cycles, magnetic storms and myocardial infarctions". Neuroendocrinology Letters 21 (3): 233–258. PMID 11455355.
26. Lowell WE, Davis GE Jr (2008). "The light of life: Evidence that the sun modulates human lifespan". Medical Hypotheses 70 (3): 501–7. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2007.05.053. PMID 17951015.
27. Consensus Development Conference Statement Sunlight, Ultraviolet Radiation, and the Skin, NIH, 1989
28. Joanna D. Haigh "The Sun and the Earth’s Climate", '‘Living Reviews in Solar Physics’' (access date 31 January 2012
29. Weart, Spencer (2003). "Changing Sun, Changing Climate?". The Discovery of Global Warming. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01157-0. Retrieved 17 April 2008.
30. Ineson S., Scaife A.A., Knight J.R., Manners J.C., Dunstone N.J., Gray L.J., Haigh J.D.; Scaife; Knight; Manners; Dunstone; Gray; Haigh (October 9, 2011). "Solar forcing of winter climate variability in the Northern Hemisphere". Nature Geoscience 4 (11): 753–7. Bibcode:2011NatGe...4..753I. doi:10.1038/ngeo1282.
31. Labitzke K., Matthes K. (2003). "Eleven-year solar cycle variations in the atmosphere: observations, mechanisms and models". The Holocene 13 (3): 311–7. doi:10.1191/0959683603hl623rp.
32. C. D. Camp and K. K. Tung; Tung (2007). "Surface warming by the solar cycle as revealed by the composite mean difference projection". Geophysical Research Letters 34 (14): L14703. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3414703C. doi:10.1029/2007GL030207. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
33. Houghton, J.T.; Ding, Y.; Griggs, D.J. et al., eds. (2001). "6.11 Total Solar Irradiance—Figure 6.6: Global, annual mean radiative forcings (1750 to present)". Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved 15 April 2007. ; see also the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, in which the magnitude of variation in solar irradiance was revised downward, although the evidence of connections between solar variation and certain aspects of climate increased over the same time period: Assessment Report-4, Working group 1, chapter 2
34. Forster, P., V. Ramaswamy, P. Artaxo, T. Berntsen, R. Betts, D.W. Fahey, J. Haywood, J. Lean, D.C. Lowe, G. Myhre, J. Nganga, R. Prinn, G. Raga, M. Schulz and R. Van Dorland (2007), "2.9.1 Uncertainties in Radiative Forcing", in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007, Chapter 2: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and Radiative Forcing, ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1
35. Wolfgang Gleißberg (1953). Die Häufigkeit der Sonnenflecken (in German). Berlin: Ahademie Verlag.

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Julian calendar
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an article about a calendar used for civil and liturgical purposes.
SeeJulian day for the day-number calendar used for astronomical and historical calculations.

The Julian calendar was a reform of the Roman calendar introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC (708 AUC). It took effect in 45 BC (709 AUC). It was the predominant calendar in most of Europe, and in European settlements in the Americas and elsewhere, until it was superseded by the Gregorian calendar.

The Julian calendar has a regular year of 365 days divided into 12 months, as listed in Table of months. A leap day is added to February every four years. The Julian year is, therefore, on average 365.25 days long. It was intended to approximate the tropical (solar) year.

Although Greek astronomers had known, at least since Hipparchus, a century before the Julian reform, that the tropical year was a few minutes shorter than 365.25 days, the calendar did not compensate for this difference.

As a result, the calendar year gained about three days every four centuries compared to observed equinox times and the seasons. This discrepancy was corrected by the Gregorian reform of 1582.

The Gregorian calendar has the same months and month lengths as the Julian calendar, but inserts leap days according to a different rule. Consequently, the Julian calendar is currently 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar; for instance,1 January in the Julian calendar is 14 January in the Gregorian.

The Julian calendar has been replaced as the civil calendar by the Gregorian calendar in almost all countries which formerly used it, although it continued to be the civil calendar of some countries into the 20th century.

Most Christian denominations in the West and areas evangelized by Western churches have also replaced the Julian calendar with the Gregorian as the basis for their liturgical calendars.

However, most branches of the Eastern Orthodox Church still use the Julian calendar for calculating the dates of moveable feasts, including Easter (Pascha). Some Orthodox churches have adopted the Revised Julian calendar for the observance of fixed feasts, while other Orthodox churches retain the Julian calendar for all purposes.[1]

The Julian calendar is still used by the Berber people of North Africa and on Mount Athos. In the form of the Alexandrian calendar, it is the basis for the Ethiopian calendar, which is the civil calendar of Ethiopia.

Months (Roman) Lengths before 45 BC Lengths as of 45 BC Months (English)
Ianuarius[2] 29 31 January
Februarius 28 (leap years: 23 or 24) 28 (leap years: 29) February
Mercedonius/Intercalaris 0 (leap years: 27) (abolished) —
Martius 31 31 March
Aprilis 29 30 April
Maius 31 31 May
Iunius[2] 29 30 June
Quintilis[3] (Iulius) 31 31 July
Sextilis (Augustus) 29 31 August
September 29 30 September
October 31 31 October
November 29 30 November
December 29 31 December

The ordinary year in the previous Roman calendar consisted of 12 months, for a total of 355 days. In addition, a 27-day intercalary month, the Mensis Intercalaris, was sometimes inserted between February and March. This intercalary month was formed by inserting 22 days after the first 23 or 24 days of February the last five days of February, which counted down toward the start of March, became the last five days of Intercalaris. The net effect was to add 22 or 23 days to the year, forming an intercalary year of 377 or 378 days.[4]

According to the later writers Censorinus and Macrobius, the ideal intercalary cycle consisted of ordinary years of 355 days alternating with intercalary years, alternately 377 and 378 days long. On this system, the average Roman year would have had 366¼ days over four years, giving it an average drift of one day per year relative to any solstice or equinox.

Macrobius describes a further refinement wherein, for 8 years out of 24, there were only three intercalary years, each of 377 days. This refinement averages the length of the year to 365.25 days over 24 years. In practice, intercalations did not occur schematically according to these ideal systems, but were determined by the pontifices.

So far as can be determined from the historical evidence, they were much less regular than these ideal schemes suggest. They usually occurred every second or third year, but were sometimes omitted for much longer, and occasionally occurred in two consecutive years.

If managed correctly this system allowed the Roman year, on average, to stay roughly aligned to a tropical year. However, since the Pontifices were often politicians, and because a Roman magistrate's term of office corresponded with a calendar year, this power was prone to abuse: a Pontifex could lengthen a year in which he or one of his political allies was in office, or refuse to lengthen one in which his opponents were in power.[5] If too many intercalations were omitted, as happened after the Second Punic War and during the Civil Wars,the calendar would drift rapidly out of alignment with the tropical year. Moreover, because intercalations were often determined quite late, the average Roman citizen often did not know the date, particularly if he were some distance from the city.

For these reasons, the last years of the pre-Julian calendar were later known as "years of confusion”. The problems became particularly acute during the years of Julius Caesar's pontificate before the reform,63–46 BC, when there were only five intercalary months, whereas there should have been eight, and none at all during the five Roman years before 46 BC. The reform was intended to correct this problem permanently, by creating a calendar that remained aligned to the sun without any human intervention.

This feature proved useful very soon after the new calendar came into effect. Varro used it in 37 BC to fix calendar dates for the start of the four seasons, which would have been impossible only 8 years earlier.[6]

A century later, when Pliny dated the winter solstice to 25 December because the sun entered the 8th degree of Capricorn on that date,[7] this stability had become an ordinary fact of life.

Context of the reform

The approximation of 365¼ days for the tropical year had been known for a long time but was not used directly since ancient calendars were not solar (except in Egypt).

It was the mean length of the year in the octaeteris, a cycle of 8 lunar years popularized by Cleostratus (and also commonly attributed to Eudoxus) which was used in some early Greek calendars, notably in Athens.

The same value was the basis of the 76 years cycle devised by Callippus (a student under Eudoxus) to improve the Metonic cycle.

The length of the year in the cycle of Meton was less accurate: about 30 minutes too long (1 day in 48 years). In Egypt, a fixed year of 365 days was in use, drifting by one day against the sun in four years. An unsuccessful attempt to add an extra day every fourth year was made in 238 BC (Decree of Canopus). Caesar probably experienced the solar calendar in that country. He landed in the Nile delta in October 48 BC and soon became embroiled in the Ptolemaic dynastic war, especially after Cleopatra managed to be "introduced" to him in Alexandria.

Caesar imposed a peace, and a banquet was held to celebrate the event.[8] Lucan depicted Caesar talking to a wise man called Acoreus during the feast, stating his intention to create a calendar more perfect than that of Eudoxus[8] (Eudoxus was popularly credited with having determined the length of the year to be 365¼ days).[9]

But the war soon resumed and Caesar was attacked by the Egyptian army for several months until he achieved victory. He then enjoyed a long cruise on the Nile with Cleopatra before leaving the country in June 47 BC.[10]
Caesar returned to Rome in 46 BC and, according to Plutarch, called in the best philosophers and mathematicians of his time to solve the problem of the calendar.[11]

Pliny says that Caesar was aided in his reform by the astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria[12] who is generally considered the principal designer of the reform. Sosigenes may also have been the author of the astronomical almanac published by Caesar to facilitate the reform.[13]

Eventually, it was decided to establish a calendar that would be a combination between the old Roman months, the fixed length of the Egyptian calendar, and the 365¼ days of the Greek astronomy. According to Macrobius,
Caesar was assisted in this by a certain Marcus Flavius.[14]

^ Towards a Common Date of Easter. (5–10 March). World Council of Churches/Middle East Council of Churches Consultation, Aleppo, Syria.
^ Jump up to: a b c The letter J was not invented until the 16th century.
Jump up ^ The spelling Quinctilis is also attested; see page 669 of The Oxford Companion to the Year.
Jump up ^ Blackburn, B. & Holford-Strevens, L. The Oxford Companion to the Year. Oxford University press, 1999, reprinted with corrections, 2003. p. 669-70.
Jump up ^ Censorinus, De die natali 20.7 (Latin)
^ Jump up to: a b Varro, On Agriculture I.1.28
Jump up ^ Pliny, Natural History: (Book 18, LIX / LXVI / LXVIII / LXXIV)
^ Jump up to: a b Lucan, Pharsalia: Book 10
Jump up ^ Émile Biémont, Rythmes du temps, astronomie et calendriers, éd. De Boeck (Bruxelles), 2000 (ISBN 2-8041-3287-0), p. 224
Jump up ^ Suetonius, Caesar 52.1
Jump up ^ Plutarch, Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans: Caesar 59.
Jump up ^ Pliny, Natural History: (Book 18, LVII)
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Sosigenes of Alexandria.
Jump up ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia I.14.2 (Latin).

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Julian calendar
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about a calendar used for civil and liturgical purposes. For the day-number calendar used for astronomical and historical calculations, see Julian day.

The Julian calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC (708 AUC), was a reform of the Roman calendar. It took effect in 45 BC (709 AUC). It was the predominant calendar in most of Europe, and in European settlements in the Americas and elsewhere, until it was refined and superseded by the Gregorian calendar. The difference in the average length of the year between Julian (365.25 days) and Gregorian (365.2425 days) is 0.002%.

The Julian calendar has a regular year of 365 days divided into 12 months, as listed in Table of months. A leap day is added to February every four years. The Julian year is, therefore, on average 365.25 days long. It was intended to approximate the tropical (solar) year. Although Greek astronomers had known, at least since Hipparchus, a century before the Julian reform, that the tropical year was a few minutes shorter than 365.25 days, the calendar did not compensate for this difference. As a result, the calendar year gained about three days every four centuries compared to observed equinox times and the seasons. This discrepancy was corrected by the Gregorian reform of 1582. The Gregorian calendar has the same months and month lengths as the Julian calendar, but inserts leap days according to a different rule. Consequently, the Julian calendar is currently 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar; for instance, 1 January in the Julian calendar is 14 January in the Gregorian.

The Julian calendar has been replaced as the civil calendar by the Gregorian calendar in almost all countries which formerly used it, although it continued to be the civil calendar of some countries into the 20th century. Most Christian denominations in the West and areas evangelized by Western churches have also replaced the Julian calendar with the Gregorian as the basis for their liturgical calendars. However, most branches of the Eastern Orthodox Church still use the Julian calendar for calculating the dates of moveable feasts, including Easter (Pascha). Some Orthodox churches have adopted the Revised Julian calendar for the observance of fixed feasts, while other Orthodox churches retain the Julian calendar for all purposes.^[1] The Julian calendar is still used by the Berber people of North Africa, and on Mount Athos. In the form of the Alexandrian calendar, it is the basis for the Ethiopian calendar, which is the civil calendar of Ethiopia.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar

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Table of months for The Julian Calendar



Motivation

The ordinary year in the previous Roman calendar consisted of 12 months, for a total of 355 days. In addition, a 27-day intercalary month, the Mensis Intercalaris, was sometimes inserted between February and March. This intercalary month was formed by inserting 22 days after the first 23 or 24 days of February; the last five days of February, which counted down toward the start of March, became the last five days of Intercalaris. The net effect was to add 22 or 23 days to the year, forming an intercalary year of 377 or 378 days.^[4]

1. The letter J was not invented until the 16th century.
2. The spelling Quinctilis is also attested; see page 669 of The Oxford Companion to the Year.
3. Jump up ^ Blackburn, B. & Holford-Strevens, L. The Oxford Companion to the Year. Oxford University press, 1999, reprinted with corrections, 2003. p. 669-70.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar

xxxxxxx

According to the later writers Censorinus and Macrobius, the ideal intercalary cycle consisted of ordinary years of 355 days alternating with intercalary years, alternately 377 and 378 days long. On this system, the average Roman year would have had 366¼ days over four years, giving it an average drift of one day per year relative to any solstice or equinox. Macrobius describes a further refinement whereby, in one 8 year period within a 24 year cycle, there were only three intercalary years, each of 377 days (thus 11 intercalary years out of 24). This refinement averages the length of the year to 365.25 days over 24 years.

In practice, intercalations did not occur systematically according to any of these ideal systems, but were determined by the Pontifices. So far as can be determined from the historical evidence, they were much less regular than these ideal schemes suggest. They usually occurred every second or third year, but were sometimes omitted for much longer, and occasionally occurred in two consecutive years.

If managed correctly this system could have allowed the Roman year to stay roughly aligned to a tropical year. However, since the Pontifices were often politicians, and because a Roman magistrate's term of office corresponded with a calendar year, this power was prone to abuse: a Pontifex could lengthen a year in which he or one of his political allies was in office, or refuse to lengthen one in which his opponents were in power.^[5]

If too many intercalations were omitted, as happened after the Second Punic War and during the Civil Wars, the calendar would drift out of alignment with the tropical year. Moreover, because intercalations were often determined quite late, the average Roman citizen often did not know the date, particularly if he were some distance from the city. For these reasons, the last years of the pre-Julian calendar were later known as "years of confusion". The problems became particularly acute during the years of Julius Caesar's pontificate before the reform, 63–46 BC, when there were only five intercalary months (instead of eight), none of which were during the five Roman years before 46 BC.

Caesar's reform was intended to solve this problem permanently, by creating a calendar that remained aligned to the sun without any human intervention. This proved useful very soon after the new calendar came into effect. Varro used it in 37 BC to fix calendar dates for the start of the four seasons, which would have been impossible only 8 years earlier.^[6] A century later, when Pliny dated the winter solstice to 25 December because the sun entered the 8th degree of Capricorn on that date,^[7] this stability had become an ordinary fact of life.

1. Censorinus, De die natali 20.7 (Latin)
2. Varro, On Agriculture I.1.28
3. Pliny, Natural History: (Book 18, LIX / LXVI / LXVIII / LXXIV)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar

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Julian reform
Realignment of the year

The first step of the reform was to realign the start of the calendar year (1 January) to the tropical year by making 46 BC (708 AUC) 445 days long, compensating for the intercalations which had been missed during Caesar's pontificate. This year had already been extended from 355 to 378 days by the insertion of a regular intercalary month in February. When Caesar decreed the reform, probably shortly after his return from the African campaign in late Quintilis (July), he added 67 more days by inserting two extraordinary intercalary months between November and December.^[15]

These months are called Intercalaris Prior and Intercalaris Posterior in letters of Cicero written at the time; there is no basis for the statement sometimes seen that they were called "Undecimber" and "Duodecimber".^[16] Their individual lengths are unknown, as is the position of the Nones and Ides within them.^[17]

Because 46 BC was the last of a series of irregular years, this extra-long year was, and is, referred to as the "last year of confusion". The new calendar began operation after the realignment had been completed, in 45 BC.^[18]

Changes to the months

The Julian months were formed by adding ten days to a regular pre-Julian Roman year of 355 days, creating a regular Julian year of 365 days. Two extra days were added to January, Sextilis (August) and December, and one extra day was added to April, June, September and November. February was not changed in ordinary years, and so continued to be the traditional 28 days. Thus, the ordinary (i.e., non leap year) lengths of all of the months were set by the Julian calendar to the same values they still hold today. (See Sacrobosco's theory on month lengths below for stories purporting otherwise).

The Julian reform did not change the method used to account days of the month in the pre-Julian calendar, based on the Kalends, Nones and Ides, nor did it change the positions of these three dates within the months. Macrobius states that the extra days were added immediately before the last day of each month to avoid disturbing the position of the established religious ceremonies relative to the Nones and Ides of the month.^[19] However, since Roman dates after the Ides of the month counted down toward the start of the next month, the extra days had the effect of raising the initial value of the count of the day following the Ides in the lengthened months. Thus, in January, Sextilis and December the 14th day of the month became a.d. XIX Kal. instead of a.d. XVII Kal., while in April, June, September and November it became a.d. XVIII Kal.

Romans of the time born after the Ides of a month responded differently to the effect of this change on their birthdays. Mark Antony kept his birthday on the 14th day of January, which changed its date from a.d. XVII Kal. Feb. to a.d. XIX Kal. Feb., a date that had previously not existed. Livia kept the date of her birthday unchanged at a.d. III Kal. Feb., which moved it from the 28th to the 30th day of January, a day that had previously not existed. Augustus kept his on the 23rd day of September, but both the old date (a.d. VIII Kal. Oct.) and the new (a.d. IX Kal. Oct.) were celebrated in some places.

The inserted days were all initially characterised as dies fasti (F -- see Roman calendar).^[20] The character of a few festival days was changed. In the early Julio-Claudian period a large number of festivals were decreed to celebrate events of dynastic importance, which caused the character of the associated dates to be changed to NP. However, this practice was discontinued around the reign of Claudius, and the practice of characterising days fell into disuse around the end of the first century AD: the Antonine jurist Gaius speaks of dies nefasti as a thing of the past.^[21]

Intercalation

The old intercalary month was abolished. The new leap day was dated as ante diem bis sextum Kalendas Martias, usually abbreviated as a.d. bis VI Kal. Mart.; hence it is called in English the bissextile day. The year in which it occurred was termed annus bissextus, in English the bissextile year.

There is debate about the exact position of the bissextile day in the early Julian calendar. The earliest direct evidence is a statement of the 2nd century jurist Celsus, who states that there were two halves of a 48-hour day, and that the intercalated day was the "posterior" half. An inscription from AD 168 states that a.d. V Kal. Mart. was the day after the bissextile day. The 19th century chronologist Ideler argued that Celsus used the term "posterior" in a technical fashion to refer to the earlier of the two days, which requires the inscription to refer to the whole 48-hour day as the bissextile. Some later historians share this view. Others, following Mommsen, take the view that Celsus was using the ordinary Latin (and English) meaning of "posterior". A third view is that neither half of the 48-hour "bis sextum" was originally formally designated as intercalated, but that the need to do so arose as the concept of a 48-hour day became obsolete.^[22]

There is no doubt that the bissextile day eventually became the earlier of the two days for most purposes. In 238 Censorinus stated that it was inserted after the Terminalia (23 February) and was followed by the last five days of February, i.e. a.d. VI, V, IV, III and prid. Kal. Mart. (which would be the 24th to 28th days of February in a common year and the 25th to the 29th days in a leap year). Hence he regarded the bissextum as the first half of the doubled day. All later writers, including Macrobius about 430, Bede in 725, and other medieval computists (calculators of Easter) followed this rule, as did the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church until 1970. However, Celsus' definition continued to be used for legal purposes. It was incorporated into Justinian's Digest,^[23] and in the English statute De anno et die bissextili of 1236, which was not formally repealed until 1879.

The effect of the bissextile day on the nundinal cycle is not discussed in the sources. According to Dio Cassius, a leap day was inserted in 41 BC to ensure that the first market day of 40 BC did not fall on 1 January, which implies that the old 8-day cycle was not immediately affected by the Julian reform. However, he also reports that in AD 44, and on some previous occasions, the market day was changed to avoid a conflict with a religious festival. This may indicate that a single nundinal letter was assigned to both halves of the 48-hour bissextile day by this time, so that the Regifugium and the market day might fall on the same date but on different days. In any case, the 8-day nundinal cycle began to be displaced by the 7-day week in the first century AD, and dominical letters began to appear alongside nundinal letters in the fasti.^[24]

During the late Middle Ages days in the month came to be numbered in consecutive day order. Consequently, the leap day was considered to be the last day in February in leap years, i.e. 29 February, which is its current position.

Sacrobosco's theory on month lengths

The Julian reform set the lengths of the months to their modern values. However, a 13th-century scholar, Sacrobosco, proposed a different explanation for the lengths of Julian months^[25] which is still widely repeated but is certainly wrong.

According to Sacrobosco, the month lengths for ordinary years in the Roman Republican calendar, from January to December, were:

30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29.

Sacrobosco then thought that Julius Caesar added one day to every month except February, a total of 11 more days to regular months, giving the ordinary Julian year of 365 days. A single leap day could now be added to this extra short February:

31, 29/30, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30.

He then said Augustus changed this, by taking one day from February to add it to Sextilis, and then modifying the alternation of the following months, to:

31, 28/29, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31

so that the length of Augustus (August) would not be shorter than (and therefore inferior to) the length of Iulius (July), giving us the irregular month lengths which are still in use.

There is abundant evidence disproving this theory. First, a wall painting of a Roman calendar predating the Julian reform has survived,^[26] which confirms the literary accounts that the months were already irregular before Julius Caesar reformed them, with an ordinary year of 355 days, not 354, with month lengths arranged as:

29, 28, 31, 29, 31, 29, 31, 29, 29, 31, 29, 29.

Also, the Julian reform did not change the dates of the Nones and Ides. In particular, the Ides were late (on the 15th rather than 13th) in March, May, July and October, showing that these months always had 31 days in the Roman calendar,^[27] whereas Sacrobosco's theory requires that March, May and July were originally 30 days long and that the length of October was changed from 29 to 30 days by Caesar and to 31 days by Augustus. Further, Sacrobosco's theory is explicitly contradicted by the 3rd and 5th century authors Censorinus^[28] and Macrobius,^[29] and it is inconsistent with seasonal lengths given by Varro, writing in 37 BC,^[6] before Sextilis was renamed for Augustus in 8 BC, with the 31-day Sextilis given by an Egyptian papyrus from 24 BC,^[30] and with the 28-day February shown in the Fasti Caeretani, which is dated before 12 BC.<sup>[31]

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Adoption of the Julian calendar

Caesar's reform only applied to the Roman calendar. However, in the following decades many of the local civic and provincial calendars of the empire and neighbouring client kingdoms were aligned to the Julian calendar by transforming them into calendars with years of 365 days with an extra day intercalated every four years.[32] The reformed calendars typically retained many features of the unreformed calendars. In many cases, the New Year was not on 1 January, the leap day was not on the bissextile day, the old month names were retained, the lengths of the reformed months did not match the lengths of Julian months, and, even if they did, their first days did not match the first day of the corresponding Julian month. Nevertheless, since the reformed calendars had fixed relationships to each other and to the Julian calendar, the process of converting dates between them became quite straightforward, through the use of conversion tables known as hemerologia.[33] Several of the reformed calendars are only known through surviving hemerologia.

The three most important of these calendars are the Alexandrian calendar, the Asian calendar and the Syro-Macedonian calendar. Other reformed calendars are known from Cappadocia, Cyprus and the cities of Syria and Palestine. Most reformed calendars were adopted under Augustus, though the calendar of Nabatea was reformed after the kingdom became the Roman province of Arabia in AD 106. There is no evidence that local calendars were aligned to the Julian calendar in the Western empire. Unreformed calendars continued to be used in Gaul, Greece, Macedon, the Balkans and parts of Palestine, most notably in Judea.

The Alexandrian calendar adapted the Egyptian calendar by adding a 6th epagomenal day as the last day of the year in every fourth year, falling on the 29 August preceding a bissextile day. It was otherwise identical to the Egyptian calendar. The first leap day was in 22 BC, and they occurred every four years from the beginning, even though Roman leap days occurred every three years at this time (see Leap year error). This calendar influenced the structure of several other reformed calendars, such as those of the cities of Gaza and Ascalon in Palestine, Salamis in Cyprus, and the province of Arabia. It was adopted by the Coptic church and remains in use both as the liturgical calendar of the Coptic church and as the civil calendar of Ethiopia.

The Asian calendar was an adaptation of the Macedonian calendar used in the province of Asia and, with minor variations, in nearby cities and provinces. It is known in detail through the survival of decrees promulgating it issued in 8BC by the proconsul Paullus Fabius Maximus. It renamed the first month Dios as Kaisar, and arranged the months such that each month started on the 23rd of the corresponding Roman month; thus the year began on 23 September, Augustus' birthday. Since Greek months typically had 29 or 30 days, the 31st day of 31 day months was named Sebaste—the emperor's day—and was the first day of these months. The leap day was a second Sebaste day in the month of Xandikos, i.e. 24 February. This calendar remained in use at least until the middle of the fifth century AD.

The SyroMacedonian calendar was an adaptation of the Macedonian calendar used in Antioch and other parts of Syria. The months were exactly aligned to the Julian calendar, but they retained their Macedonian names and the year began in Dios = November until the fifth century, when the start of the year was moved to Gorpiaios = September.

These reformed calendars generally remained in use until the fifth or sixth century. Around that time most of them were replaced as civil calendars by the Julian calendar, but with a year starting in September to reflect the year of the indiction cycle.

The Julian calendar spread beyond the borders of the Roman Empire through its use as the Christian liturgical calendar. When a people or a country was converted to Christianity, they generally also adopted the Christian calendar of the church responsible for conversion. Thus, Christian Nubia and Ethiopia adopted the Alexandrian calendar, while Christian Europe adopted the Julian calendar, in either the Catholic or Orthodox variant. Starting in the 16th century, European settlements in the Americas and elsewhere likewise inherited the Julian calendar of the mother country, until they adopted the Gregorian reform. The last country to adopt the Julian calendar was the Ottoman Empire, which had used it for financial purposes for some time, but adopted it officially as the civil calendar (the "Rumi calendar") in 1840.

Leap year error

Although the new calendar was much simpler than the pre-Julian calendar, the pontifices initially added a leap day every three years, instead of every four. According to Macrobius, the error was the result of counting inclusively, so that the four-year cycle was considered as including both the first and fourth years; this was perhaps the earliest recorded example of a fence post error. After 36 years, this resulted in three too many leap days. Augustus remedied this discrepancy by restoring the correct frequency. He also skipped three leap days over 12 years in order to realign the year. Once this reform was complete, intercalation resumed in every fourth year and the Roman calendar was the same as the Julian proleptic calendar.^[34]

The historic sequence of leap years in this period is not given explicitly by any ancient source, though Scaliger established that the Augustan reform was instituted in 8 BC. Several solutions have been proposed, which are summarised in the following table. The table shows for each solution the implied proleptic Julian date for the first day of Caesar's reformed calendar (Kal. Ian. AUC 709) and the first Julian date in which the Roman calendar date matches the proleptic Julian calendar after the completion of Augustus' reform.



Scaliger's proposal is the most widely accepted solution. It closely matches Macrobius' description and results in a calendar year and leap year cycle which exactly matches the proleptic Julian calendar at the time of Caesar's reform, except for his belief that the first reformed year, 45 BC, was not a leap year. Although some scholars, including Mommsen, support Ideler's view that 45 BC was a leap year, Brind'Amour has proved that there was only one bissextile day before 41 BC (in the table above, this rules out both Ideler's solution and the solution proposed by Bünting in 1590 and again by Radke in 1960).[44]

All proposals which end the triennial cycle before 9 BC are provably incorrect (keeping only the candidate solutions proposed by Scaliger and most recently by Bennett in the table above). The Asian calendar reform[45] decreed by the proconsul Paullus Fabius Maximus aligned the calendar of the Asian province to the Roman calendar with a New Year falling on Augustus' birthday. It cannot have taken effect any earlier than 9 BC, and the decree states that the first reformed year was a leap year in a triennial cycle.

In 1999, an Egyptian papyrus was published that gives an ephemeris table for 24 BC with both Roman and Egyptian dates.[30] While the Egyptian and lunar synchronisms match the Roman dates on the proleptic Julian calendar, they do not match them on any previously proposed solution for the triennial cycle. One suggested resolution of this problem, which matches the data of the papyrus, is a new triennial sequence, in which the triennial leap years started in 44 BC and ended in 8 BC, with leap years resuming in AD 4 (this is the solution most recently proposed in 2003 by Bennett in the table above).

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Month names

The Julian reform did not immediately cause the names of any months to be changed. The old intercalary month was abolished and replaced with a single intercalary day at the same point (i.e. five days before the end of February). January continued to be the first month of the year.

The Romans later renamed months after Julius Caesar and Augustus, renaming Quintilis as "Iulius" (July)^[2] in 44 BC and Sextilis as "Augustus" (August) in 8 BC. Quintilis was renamed to honour Caesar because it was the month of his birth.^[46] According to a senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed to honour Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, occurred in that month.^[47]

Other months were renamed by other emperors, but apparently none of the later changes survived their deaths. In AD 37, Caligula renamed September as "Germanicus" after his father;^[48] in AD 65, Nero renamed April as "Neroneus", May as "Claudius" and June as "Germanicus";^[49] and in AD 84 Domitian renamed September as "Germanicus" and October as "Domitianus".^[50] Commodus was unique in renaming all twelve months after his own adopted names (January to December): "Amazonius", "Invictus", "Felix", "Pius", "Lucius", "Aelius", "Aurelius", "Commodus", "Augustus", "Herculeus", "Romanus", and "Exsuperatorius".^[51] The emperor Tacitus is said to have ordered that September, the month of his birth and accession, be renamed after him, but the story is doubtful since he did not become emperor before November 275.^[52] Similar honorific month names were implemented in many of the provincial calendars that were aligned to the Julian calendar.^[53]

Other name changes were proposed but were never implemented. Tiberius rejected a senatorial proposal to rename September as "Tiberius" and October as "Livius", after his mother Livia.^[54] Antoninus Pius rejected a senatorial decree renaming September as "Antoninus" and November as "Faustina", after his empress.^[55]
Much more lasting than the ephemeral month names of the post-Augustan Roman emperors were the names introduced by Charlemagne.^[56] He renamed all of the months agriculturally into Old High German. They were used until the 15th century, over 700 years after his rule, and continued with some modifications until the late 18th century in Germany and in the Netherlands. The names (January to December) were: Wintarmanoth (winter month), Hornung (the month when the male red deer sheds its antlers), Lentzinmanoth (Lent month), Ostarmanoth (Easter month), Wonnemanoth (love-making month), Brachmanoth (plowing month), Heuvimanoth (hay month), Aranmanoth (harvest month), Witumanoth (wood month), Windumemanoth (vintage month), Herbistmanoth (autumn/harvest month), and Heilagmanoth (holy month).

The calendar month names used in western and northern Europe, in Byzantium, and by the Berbers, were derived from the Latin names. However, in eastern Europe older seasonal month names continued to be used into the 19th century, and in some cases are still in use, in many languages, including: Belarusian, Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Finnish, Georgian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Polish, Romanian, Slovene, Ukrainian. When the Ottoman empire adopted the Julian calendar, in the form of the Rumi calendar, the month names reflected Ottoman tradition.

Year numbering

The principal method that the Romans used to identify a year for dating purposes was to name it after the two consuls who took office in it, so this eponymous or named year was called the consular year. Since 153 BC, they had taken office on 1 January, the start of the calendar year. The calendar year is the order that the months were listed in calendars or fasti displayed on painted walls or on stone tablets, and has been January to December since about 450 BC according to Ovid or since about 713 BC according to Macrobius and Plutarch (see Roman calendar). Julius Caesar did not change the beginning of either the consular year or the calendar year. In addition to consular years, the Romans sometimes used the regnal year of the emperor, and by the late 4th century documents were also being dated according to the 15-year cycle of the indiction. In 537, Justinian required that henceforth the date must include the name of the emperor and his regnal year, in addition to the indiction and the consul, while also allowing the use of local eras.
In 309 and 310, and from time to time thereafter, no consuls were appointed.^[57] When this happened, the consular date was given a count of years since the last consul (so-called "post-consular" dating). After 541, only the reigning emperor held the consulate, typically for only one year in his reign, and so post-consular dating became the norm. Similar post-consular dates were also known in the West in the early 6th century. The system of consular dating, long obsolete, was formally abolished in the law code of Leo VI, issued in 888.

Only rarely did the Romans number the year from the founding of the city (of Rome), ab urbe condita (AUC). This method was used by Roman historians to determine the number of years from one event to another, not to date a year. Different historians had several different dates for the founding. The Fasti Capitolini, an inscription containing an official list of the consuls which was published by Augustus, used an epoch of 752 BC. The epoch used by Varro, 753 BC, has been adopted by modern historians. Indeed, Renaissance editors often added it to the manuscripts that they published, giving the false impression that the Romans numbered their years. Most modern historians tacitly assume that it began on the day the consuls took office, and ancient documents such as the Fasti Capitolini which use other AUC systems do so in the same way. However, Censorinus, writing in the 3rd century AD, states that, in his time, the AUC year began with the Parilia, celebrated on 21 April, which was regarded as the actual anniversary of the foundation of Rome.^[58]

Many local eras, such as the Era of Actium and the Spanish Era, were adopted for the Julian calendar or its local equivalent in the provinces and cities of the Roman Empire. Some of these were used for a considerable time.^[59] Perhaps the best known is the Era of Martyrs, sometimes also called Anno Diocletiani (after Diocletian), which was associated with the Alexandrian calendar and often used by the Alexandrian Christians to number their Easters during the 4th and 5th centuries, and continues to be used by the Coptic and Ethiopian churches.

In the Eastern Mediterranean, the efforts of Christian chronographers such as Annianus of Alexandria to date the Biblical creation of the world led to the introduction of Anno Mundi eras based on this event.^[60] The most important of these was the Etos Kosmou, used throughout the Byzantine world from the 10th century and in Russia until 1700. In the West, the kingdoms succeeding the empire initially used indictions and regnal years, alone or in combination. The chronicler Prosper of Aquitaine, in the fifth century, used an era dated from the Passion of Christ, but this era was not widely adopted. Dionysius Exiguus proposed the system of Anno Domini in 525. This era gradually spread through the western Christian world, once the system was adopted by Bede.

The Julian calendar was also used in some Muslim countries. The Rumi calendar, the Julian calendar used in the later years of the Ottoman Empire, adopted an era derived from the lunar AH year equivalent to AD 1840, i.e. the effective Rumi epoch was AD 585. In recent years, some users of the Berber calendar have adopted an era starting in 950 BC, the approximate date that the Libyan pharaoh Sheshonq I came to power in Egypt.

New Year's Day

The Roman calendar began the year on 1 January, and this remained the start of the year after the Julian reform. However, even after local calendars were aligned to the Julian calendar, they started the new year on different dates. The Alexandrian calendar in Egypt started on 29 August (30 August after an Alexandrian leap year). Several local provincial calendars were aligned to start on the birthday of Augustus, 23 September. The indiction caused the Byzantine year, which used the Julian calendar, to begin on 1 September; this date is still used in the Eastern Orthodox Church for the beginning of the liturgical year. When the Julian calendar was adopted in AD 988 by Vladimir I of Kiev, the year was numbered Anno Mundi 6496, beginning on 1 March, six months after the start of the Byzantine Anno Mundi year with the same number. In 1492 (AM 7000), Ivan III, according to church tradition, realigned the start of the year to 1 September, so that AM 7000 only lasted for six months in Russia, from 1 March to 31 August 1492.^[61]
During the Middle Ages 1 January retained the name New Year's Day (or an equivalent name) in all Western European countries (affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church), since the medieval calendar continued to display the months from January to December (in twelve columns containing 28 to 31 days each), just as the Romans had. However, most of those countries began their numbered year on 25 December (the Nativity of Jesus), 25 March (the Incarnation of Jesus), or even Easter, as in France (see the Liturgical year article for more details).

In Anglo-Saxon England, the year most commonly began on 25 December, which, as the winter solstice, had marked the start of the year in pagan times, though 25 March is occasionally documented in the 11th century. Sometimes the start of the year was reckoned as 24 September, the start of the so-called "western indiction" introduced by Bede.^[62] These practices changed after the Norman conquest. From 1087 to 1155 the English year began on 1 January, and from 1155 to 1751 on 25 March.^[63] In 1752 it was moved back to 1 January.

Even before 1752, 1 January was sometimes treated as the start of the new year – for example by Pepys^[64] – while the "year starting 25th March was called the Civil or Legal Year".^[65] To reduce misunderstandings on the date, it was not uncommon in parish registers for a new year heading after 24 March, for example 1661, to have another heading at the end of the following December indicating "1661/62". This was to explain to the reader that the year was 1661 Old Style and 1662 New Style.^[66]

Most Western European countries shifted the first day of their numbered year to 1 January while they were still using the Julian calendar, before they adopted the Gregorian calendar, many during the 16th century. The following table shows the years in which various countries adopted 1 January as the start of the year. Eastern European countries, with populations showing allegiance to the Orthodox Church, began the year on 1 September from about 988. The Rumi calendar used in the Ottoman empire began the civil year on 1 March until 1918.



From Julian to Gregorian

Main article: Gregorian calendar
The Julian calendar was in general use in Europe and Northern Africa until 1582, when Pope Gregory XIII promulgated the Gregorian calendar. Reform was required because too many leap days are added with respect to the astronomical seasons on the Julian scheme. On average, the astronomical solstices and the equinoxes advance by about 11 minutes per year against the Julian year. As a result, the calculated date of Easter gradually moved out of alignment with the March equinox.

While Hipparchus and presumably Sosigenes were aware of the discrepancy, although not of its correct value, it was evidently felt to be of little importance at the time of the Julian reform. However, it accumulated significantly over time: the Julian calendar gained a day about every 134 years. By 1582, it was ten days out of alignment from where it supposedly had been in 325 during the Council of Nicaea.
The Gregorian calendar was soon adopted by most Catholic countries (e.g. Spain, Portugal, Poland, most of Italy). Protestant countries followed later, and the countries of Eastern Europe adopted the "new calendar" even later. In the British Empire (including the American colonies), Wednesday 2 September 1752 was followed by Thursday 14 September 1752. For 12 years from 1700 Sweden used a modified Julian calendar, and adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1753, but Russia remained on the Julian calendar until 1918 (1 February became 14 February), while Greece continued to use it until 1 March 1923 (Gregorian).^[74]
Since the Julian and Gregorian calendars were long used simultaneously, although in different places, calendar dates in the transition period are often ambiguous, unless it is specified which calendar was being used. In some circumstances, double dates might be used, one in each calendar. The notation "Old Style" (O.S.) is sometimes used to indicate a date in the Julian calendar, as opposed to "New Style" (N.S.), which either represents the Julian date with the start of the year as 1 January or a full mapping onto the Gregorian calendar. This notation is used to clarify dates from countries which continued to use the Julian calendar after the Gregorian reform, such as Great Britain, which did not switch to the reformed calendar until 1752, or Russia, which did not switch until 1918.

Throughout the long transition period, the Julian calendar has continued to diverge from the Gregorian. This has happened in whole-day steps, as leap days which were dropped in certain centennial years in the Gregorian calendar continued to be present in the Julian calendar. Thus, in the year 1700 the difference increased to 11 days after February 28 (Gregorian); in 1800, 12; and in 1900, 13. Since 2000 was a leap year according to both the Julian and Gregorian calendars, the difference of 13 days did not change in that year: 29 February 2000 (Gregorian) fell on 16 February 2000 (Julian). This difference will persist through the last day of February, 2100 (Gregorian), since 2100 is not a Gregorian leap year, but is a Julian leap year. Monday 1 March 2100 (Gregorian) falls on Monday 16 February 2100 (Julian).<sup>[75]

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Eastern Orthodox usage



Russian icon of the Theophany (6 January), the highest-ranked feast which occurs on the fixed cycle of the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar.

Although all Eastern Orthodox countries (most of them in Eastern or Southeastern Europe) had adopted the Gregorian calendar by 1924, their national churches had not. The "Revised Julian calendar" was proposed during a synod in Constantinople in May 1923, consisting of a solar part which was and will be identical to the Gregorian calendar until the year 2800, and a lunar part which calculated Pascha (Easter) astronomically at Jerusalem. All Orthodox churches refused to accept the lunar part, so almost all Orthodox churches continue to celebrate Pascha according to the Julian calendar (with the exception of the Estonian Orthodox Church and the Finnish Orthodox Church).^[76][77]

The solar part of the Revised Julian calendar was accepted by only some Orthodox churches. Those that did accept it, with hope for improved dialogue and negotiations with the Western denominations, were the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, the Patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch, the Orthodox Churches of Greece, Cyprus, Romania, Poland (from 1924 to 2014 but remain permitted to use the Revised Julian calendar for some parishes, that want it), Bulgaria (the last in 1963), and the Orthodox Church in America (although some OCA parishes are permitted to use the Julian calendar). Thus these churches celebrate the Nativity on the same day that Western Christians do, 25 December Gregorian until 2800.

The Orthodox Churches of Jerusalem, Russia, Serbia, Poland (from 15 June 2014), Macedonia, Georgia, Ukraine, and the Greek Old Calendarists and other groups continue to use the Julian calendar, thus they celebrate the Nativity on 25 December Julian (which is 7 January Gregorian until 2100). The Russian Orthodox Church has some parishes in the West which celebrate the Nativity on 25 December Gregorian.

Parishes of the Orthodox Church in America Bulgarian Diocese, both before and after the 1976 transfer of that diocese from the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia to the Orthodox Church in America, were permitted to use the 25 December Gregorian date. Some Old Calendarist groups which stand in opposition to the state churches of their homelands will use the Great Feast of the Theophany (6 January Julian/19 January Gregorian) as a day for religious processions and the Great Blessing of Waters, to publicize their cause.^{[citation needed]}

The Oriental Orthodox Churches generally use the local calendar of their homelands. However, when calculating the Nativity Feast, most observe the Julian calendar. This was traditionally for the sake of unity throughout Christendom. In the West, some Oriental Orthodox Churches either use the Gregorian calendar or are permitted to observe the Nativity according to it. The Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church celebrates the Nativity as part of the Feast of Theophany according to its traditional calendar.^{[citation needed]}

1. Towards a Common Date of Easter. (5–10 March). World Council of Churches/Middle East Council of Churches Consultation, Aleppo, Syria.
2. The letter J was not invented until the 16th century.
3. The spelling Quinctilis is also attested; see page 669 of The Oxford Companion to the Year.
4. Blackburn, B. & Holford-Strevens, L. The Oxford Companion to the Year. Oxford University press, 1999, reprinted with corrections, 2003. p. 669-70.
5. Censorinus, De die natali 20.7 (Latin)
6. Varro, On Agriculture I.1.28
7. Pliny, Natural History: (Book 18, LIX / LXVI / LXVIII / LXXIV)
8. Lucan, Pharsalia: Book 10
9. Émile Biémont, Rythmes du temps, astronomie et calendriers, éd. De Boeck (Bruxelles), 2000 (ISBN 2-8041-3287-0), p. 224
10. Suetonius, Caesar 52.1
11. Plutarch, Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans: Caesar 59.
12. Pliny, Natural History: (Book 18, LVII)
13. Encyclopædia Britannica Sosigenes of Alexandria.
14. Macrobius, Saturnalia I.14.2 (Latin).
15. It is not known why he decided that 67 was the correct number of days to add, nor whether he intended to align the calendar to a specific astronomical event such as the winter solstice. Ideler suggested (Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie II 123-125) that he intended to align the winter solstice to a supposedly traditional date of 25 December. The number may compensate for three omitted intercalary months (67 = 22+23+22). It also made the distance from 1 March 46 BC, the original New Years Day in the Roman calendar, to 1 January 45 BC 365 days.
16. E.g. "... we have a sidelight on what was involved in "the year of confusion" as it was called. According to Dion Cassius, the historian, there was a governor in Gaul who insisted that, in the lengthened year, two months' extra taxes should be paid! The extra months were called Undecimber and Duodecimber." (P. W. Wilson, The romance of the calendar (New York, 1937), 112). The eponymous dating of the cited passage (Dio Cassius 54.21) shows that it actually refers to an event of 15 BC, not 46 BC.
17. J. Rüpke, The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine: Time, History and the Fasti, 117f., suggests, based on the ritual structures of the calendar, that 5 days were added to November and that the two intercalary months each had 31 days, with Nones and Ides on the 7th and 15th.
18. William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities: Year of Julius Caesar), following Ideler, interprets Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.14.13 (Latin) to mean that Caesar decreed that the first day of the new calendar began with the new moon which fell on the night of 1/2 January 45 BC. (The new moon was on 2 January 45 BC (in the Proleptic Julian calendar) at 00:21 UTC, according to IMCCE (a branch of the Paris Observatory): Phases of the moon (between −4000 and +2500).) However, more recent studies of the manuscripts have shown that the word on which this is based, which was formerly read as lunam, should be read as linam, meaning that Macrobius was simply stating that Caesar published an edict giving the revised calendar — see e.g. p.99 in the translation of Macrobius by P. Davies. Smith gives no source or justification for his other speculation that Caesar originally intended to commence the year precisely with the winter solstice.
19. Macrobius, Saturnalia 14.9 (Latin). Exceptionally, the extra day in April was inserted as the 26th, a.d. VI Kal. Mai. in the Julian calendar, in order to avoid adding a day to the Floralia, which ran from a.d. IV Kal. Mai (27th day of April in the pre-Julian calendar) to a.d. V Non. Mai.
20. Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.14.12 (Latin).
21. A. K. Michels, The Calendar of the Roman Republic Appendix II; J. Rüpke, The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine 113-114, 126-132, 147.
22. W. Sternkopf, "Das Bissextum", (JCP 41 (1895) 718–733).
23. Justinian, Digest 50.16.98.
24. Dio Cassius 48.33.4, 60.24.7; C. J. Bennett, "The Imperial Nundinal Cycle", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 147 (2004) 175-179.
25. Roscoe Lamont, "The Roman calendar and its reformation by Julius Caesar", Popular Astronomy 27 (1919) 583–595. Sacrobosco's theory is discussed on pages 585–587.
26. Roman Republican calendar
27. Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.13.7 and 1.14.7-8 (Latin), Censorinus, De die natali 20.10 (Latin), (English).
28. Censorinus, De die natali 20.9 (Latin), (English)
29. Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.14.7 (Latin)
30. A. R. Jones, "Calendrica II: Date Equations from the Reign of Augustus", Zeitschrift fűr Papyrologie und Epigraphik 129 (2000) 159-166.
31. A. Degrassi, Inscriptiones Italiae XIII: Fasti et Elogia 2: Fasti Anni Numani et Iuliani; Accedunt Feralia, Menologia Rustica, Parapegmata (Rome, 1963) 66 (Latin)
32. This section is based on S. Stern, Calendars in Antiquity (OUP 2012) 259-297.
33. Studied in detail in W. Kubitschek, Die Kalendarbücher von Florenz, Rom und Leyden (Vienna, 1915)
34. Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.14.13-15 (Latin); Nautical Almanac Offices of the United Kingdom and the United States. (1961). Explanatory Supplement to the Ephemeris London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. p. 410–1.
35. J. J. Scaliger, De emendatione temporum (Paris, 1583), 159, 238.
36. C. J. Bennett, "The Early Augustan Calendars in Rome and Egypt", Zeitschrift fűr Papyrologie und Epigraphik 142 (2003) 221-240 and "The Early Augustan Calendars in Rome and Egypt: Addenda et Corrigenda", Zeitschrift fűr Papyrologie und Epigraphik 147 (2004) 165-168; see also Chris Bennett, A.U.C. 730 = 24 B.C. (Egyptian papyrus).
37. For the list of triennial leap years proposed by Bünting, Christmann and Harriot, see Harriot's comparative table reproduced by Simon Cassidy (Fig. 6). The table numbers years as Julian years, where Julian year 1 = 45 BC. Thus, Scaliger and Clavius (col. 7) resume intercalation in Julian year 53 = AD 8, while Bünting (col. 8) and Harriot (col. 3) resume it in Julian year 49 = AD 4 and Christmann (col. 9) in year 52 = AD 7.
38. J. Christmann Muhamedis Alfragani arabis chronologica et astronomica elementa (Frankfurt, 1590), 173. His argument assumed that the triennial cycle started in the third Julian year.
39. J. Kepler, De Vero Anno Quo Æternus Dei Filius Humanan Naturam in Utero Benedictæ Virginis Mariæ Assumpsit (Frankfurt, 1614) Cap. V, repub. in F. Hammer (ed.), Johannes Keplers Gesammelte Werke (Berlin, 1938) V 28.
40. C. L. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie (Berlin, 1825) II 130-131. He argued that Caesar would have enforced the bissextile day by introducing it in his first reformed year. T. E. Mommsen, Die Römische Chronologie bis auf Caesar (Berlin, 1859) 282-299, provided additional circumstantial arguments.
41. H. Matzat, Römische Chronologie I (Berlin, 1883), 13-18. His argument rested on Dio Cassius 48.33.4 which mentions a leap day inserted in 41 BC, "contrary to the (i.e. Caesar's) rule", in order to avoid having a market day on the first day of 40 BC. Dio stated that this leap day was compensated "later". Matzat proposed this was done by omitting a scheduled leap day in 40 BC, rather than by omitting a day from an ordinary year.
42. W. Soltau, Römische Chronologie (Freiburg, 1889) 170-173. He accepted Matzat's phase of the triennial cycle but argued that it was absurd to suppose that Caesar would have made the second Julian year a leap year and that the 36 years had to be accounted from 45 BC.
43. G. Radke, "Die falsche Schaltung nach Caesars Tode", Rheinisches Museum für Philologie, Geschichte und griechische Philosophie 103 (1960) 178-185. He proposed that Augustus initiated the reform when he became pontifex maximus in 12 BC.
44. P. Brind'Amour, Le calendrier romain (Ottawa, 1983), 45-46.
45. OGIS 458 (Greek); U. Laffi, "Le iscrizioni relative all'introduzione nel 9 a.c. del nuovo calendario della provincia d'Asia", Studi Classici e Orientali 16 (1967) 5-99.
46. Suetonius, Caesar 76.1
47. Suetonius, Augustus 31.2; Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.12.35 (Latin)
48. Suetonius, Caligula 15.2.
49. Tacitus, Annals 15.74, 16.12.
50. Suetonius, Domitian 13.3.
51. Dio Cassius 73.15.3.
52. Historia Augusta, Tacitus 13.6. On the chronology see R. McMahon, Tacitus
53. Surveyed in K. Scott, Honorific Months, Yale Classical Studies 2 (1931) 201-278.
54. Suetonius, Tiberius 26.2.
55. Historia Augusta, Antoninus Pius 10.1.
56. Einhard, Life of Charlemagne, 29.
57. Chronography of AD 354
58. Censorinus De die natali 21.6 (Latin). Because the festivities associated with the Parilia conflicted with the solemnity of Lent, which was observed until the Saturday before Easter Sunday, the early Roman church did not celebrate Easter after 21 April — Charles W. Jones, "Development of the Latin Ecclesiastical calendar", Bedae Opera de Temporibus (1943), 1–122, p.28.
59. For a partial survey see A. E. Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronology: calendars and years in classical antiquity (Munich, 1972), 245ff. Samuel introduces his survey by saying: "The number of eras which came into use and then expired to be replaced by yet other eras during Hellenistic and Roman times is probably not infinite, but I have not been able to find the end of them." Anatolian eras are exhaustively surveyed in W. Leschhorn, Antike Ären: Zeitrechnung, Politik und Geschichte im Schwarzmeerraum und in Kleinasien nördlich des Tauros (Stuttgart, 1993).
60. A. A. Mosshammer, The Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era (Oxford, 2008) 27-29.
61. История календаря в России и в СССР (Calendar history in Russia and in the USSR)
62. M. L. R. Beaven, "The Regnal Dates of Alfred, Edward the Elder, and Athelstan", English Historical Review 32 (1917) 517-531; idem, "The Beginning of the Year in the Alfredian Chronicle (866-87)", English Historical Review 33 (1918) 328-342.
63. Catholic Encyclopedia, General Chronology (Beginning of the Year).
64. Pepys Diary, "I sat down to end my journell for this year, ..."
65. Spathaky, Mike Old Style New Style dates and the change to the Gregorian calendar.
66. Spathaky, Mike Old Style New Style dates and the change to the Gregorian calendar. "An oblique stroke is by far the most usual indicator, but sometimes the alternative final figures of the year are written above and below a horizontal line, as in a fraction (a form which cannot easily be reproduced here in ASCII text). Very occasionally a hyphen is used, as 1733-34."
67. John James Bond, "Commencement of the Year", Handy-book of rules and tables for verifying dates with the Christian era, (London: 1875), 91–101.
68. Mike Spathaky Old Style and New Style Dates and the change to the Gregorian Calendar: A summary for genealogists
69. The source has Germany, whose current area during the sixteenth century was a major part of the Holy Roman Empire, a religiously divided confederation. The source is unclear as to whether all or only parts of the country made the change. In general, Roman Catholic countries made the change a few decades before Protestant countries did.
70. Sweden's conversion is complicated and took much of the first half of the 18th century. See Swedish calendar.
71. Per decree of 16 June 1575. Hermann Grotefend, "Osteranfang" (Easter beginning), Zeitrechnung de Deutschen Mittelalters und der Neuzeit (Chronology of the German Middle Ages and modern times) (1891–1898)
72. 1751 in England only lasted from 25 March to 31 December. The following dates 1 January to 24 March which would have concluded 1751 became part of 1752 when the beginning of the numbered year was changed from 25 March to 1 January.
73. See Rumi calendar for details. It is often stated that Turkey adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1926 or 1927. This refers to the adoption of the Anno domini era.
74. Nautical almanac offices of the United Kingdom and United States, Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris and the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1961), 413–6. Note that the date given there for Greece -- 10/24 March 1924 -- is actually the date that the Church of Greece adopted the Revised Julian calendar; see Social Security Administration publication GN 00307.180 - Gregorian/Julian calendar. Also, areas of Russia not under Bolshevik control at the start of 1918 adopted the Gregorian calendar on different dates; see the summary at Toke Nørby, The Perpetual Calendar..
75. Fourmilab Calendar Converter webpage
76. "Estonian Orthodox Church (Estonian Events)". Vancouveri Eesti Apostliku Õigeusu Kirik. 2010.
77. Bishop Photius of Triaditsa, "The 70th Anniversary of the Pan-Orthodox Congress, Part II of II"; "HELSINGIN SANOMAT (International edition)". 21 September 2007.

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Sun magnetic field will ‘flip upside down’ within weeks, says NASA




http://www.independent.co.uk/incoming/article8942792.ece/ALTERNATES/w620/sun.jpg

November 16, 2013 – SPACE – Sun is set to “flip upside down” within weeks as its magnetic field reverses polarity in an event that will send ripple effects throughout the solar system.

Although it may sound like a catastrophic occurrence, there’s no need to run for cover. The sun switches its polarity, flipping its magnetic north and south, once every eleven years through an internal mechanism about which little is understood.

The swap could however cause intergalactic weather fronts such as geomagnetic storms, which can interfere with satellites and cause radio blackouts.

UPDATE: Sun has 'flipped upside down' as new magnetic cycle begins

Nasa said in August that the change would happen in three to four months time, but it is impossible to give a more specific date. Scientist won’t know for around another three weeks whether the flip is complete.
The impact of the transfer will be widespread as the sun’s magnetic field exerts influence well beyond Pluto, past Nasa's Voyager probes positioned near the edge of interstellar space.

The event will be watched closely by researchers at Stanford University’s Wilcox Solar Observatory, which monitors the sun's magnetic field on a daily basis.

Todd Hoeksema, director of the Wilcox Solar Observatory, said the polarity change is built up throughout the eleven year cycle through areas of intense magnetic activity known as sunspots which gradually move towards the poles, eroding the existing opposite polarity.

Eventually, the magnetic field reduces to zero, before rebounding with the opposite polarity. “It's kind of like a tide coming in or going out,” Hoeksema said. “Each little wave brings a little more water in, and eventually you get to the full reversal.”
One of the most noticeable effect on Earth will be a boost in the occurrence, range and visibility of auroras - the Northern Lights. “It’s not a catastrophic event, it’s a large scale event that has some real implications, but its not something we need to worry about,” added Hoeksema.

–Independent, TEP
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/sun-will-flip-upside-down-within-weeks-says-nasa-8942769.html

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar

Bibliography

• Blackburn, Bonnie; Holford-Strevens, Leofranc (2003, reprinted with corrections). The Oxford Companion to the Year. Oxford University Press.
• Brind'Amour, Pierre (1983). Le Calendrier romain: Recherches chronologiques. Ottawa University Press.
• Feeney, Dennis (2007). Caesar's Calendar: Ancient Time and the Beginnings of History. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Rüpke, Jörg (2011). The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine: Time, History and the Fasti. Wiley.
• Stern, Sacha (2012). Calendars in Antiquity: Empires, States and Societies. Oxford University Press.
• Nautical Almanac Offices of the United Kingdom and the United States of America (1961). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris and the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.

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Berber calendar

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia




Seasons in North Africa: Atlas Mountains in January and April.

The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used in regions of North Africa. It is also known in North-African Arabic dialects as the ﻓﻼّﺣﻲ fellaḥi "rustic" or ﻋﺠﻤﻲ ɛajami "foreign" calendar. It is employed to regulate the seasonal agricultural works, in place of the Islamic calendar, a lunar calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles.^[1] The Berber calendar, a legacy of Roman Mauretania, is a surviving form of the ancient Julian calendar, the calendar used in Europe before the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. with month names derived from Latin.

There have been other indigenous calendars among the Berber peoples^[2] in the past, for example that of the Guanches of the Canary Islands, but relatively little is known of these.

Tteṭṭsen iyaren, ttlalan-d
Iseggasen ttlalan-d, ttmettan
U yettdimi day Ṛebbi
Months lie down and are born again
Years are born and die
Only God is eternal
—Traditional saying of Ouargla^[3]

Contents

• 1 The older calendars
• 2 The current Julian calendar
  • 2.1 The months
  • 2.2 The "Gates of the Year"
    • 2.2.1 Llyali
    • 2.2.2 Yennayer
    • 2.2.3 Lḥusum/imbarken
    • 2.2.4 Ssmaym/Awussu
    • 2.2.5 Iweǧǧiben
• 3 Influences from the Islamic calendar
• 4 The Tuareg calendar
• 5 The computation of the years
• 6 Neologisms and false traditions
  • 6.1 The names of the months
  • 6.2 The weekdays
  • 6.3 Days and people names
• 7 See also
• 8 Notes
• 9 References
• 10 External links

The older calendars

Not much is known about the division of time among ancient Berbers. Some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly pre-Roman, calendar emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with some degree of diffusion, a "Berber" time computation, organized on native bases.

Tab. 1 - The Berber months
drawn from medieval works
(van den Boogert 2002)

	Name of the month	"Meaning"
1	tayyuret tezwaret	The first small moon
2	tayyuret teggwerat	The last small moon
3	yardut	?
4	sinwa	?
5	tasra tezwaret	The first herd
6	tasra teggwerat	The last herd
7	awdayeɣet yezwaren	The first antelope babies
8	awdayeɣet yeggweran	The last antelope babies
9	awzimet yezwaren	The first gazelle babies
10	awzimet yeggweran	The last gazelle babies
11	ayssi / aysi	?
12	nim	?

There are not enough elements to reconstruct this calendar fully, but known characteristics include many month names' appearing in couples (in the Tuareg world, even in triplets), which suggests a time division different from the present one, made up of months of about 30 days.

Some further information, although difficult to specify and correlate with the situation in the rest of North Africa, may be deduced from what is known about time computation among the Guanches of the Canary Islands. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano, by lunations of 29 days (suns) beginning from the new moon. It began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21: at the first conjunction (at the first new moon after the Summer solstice) they celebrated nine festival days for the crop.^[4]

The same manuscript states (although somewhat obscurely) that graphical-pictorical records of such calendarial events (tara) were made on different supports, and on this basis some modern scholars identified alleged descriptions of astronomical events connected to annual cycles in a series of geometric paintings in some caves of Gran Canaria island, but the results of these studies are for now highly speculative.^[5]

The name of only one month is known in the native language, handed down as Beñesmet. It seems it was the second month of the year, corresponding to August.^[6] Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen "that of" + (e)smet (or (e)zmet?), may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, awzimet (properly aw "baby of" + zimet "gazelle").^{[citation needed]} But data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened.

The current Julian calendar

The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, introduced in the Roman province of Africa at the time of Roman domination. Evidence includes the following:

• the names of the months of this calendar (both in Berber language and in Maghrebi Arabic), derive from the corresponding Latin names;
• the beginning of the year (the first day of yennayer) corresponds to the 14th day of January in the Gregorian calendar, which coincides with the offset accumulated during the centuries between astronomical dates and the Julian calendar;
• the length of the year and of the individual months is the same as in the Julian calendar: three years of 365 days followed by a leap year of 366, without exceptions, and 30- and 31-day months, except for the second one that has 28 days. The only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year.

Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, and has hypothesized that is came from a Coptic calendar brought into North Africa by Arabs.^{[7][page needed]} However, the structure of the Copt calendar is extremely different from that of the Berber one. Moreover, traces of the Roman calendar denominations of Kalends, Nones and Ides exist: El Qabisi, an Islamic jurisconsult by Kairawan who lived in the 11th century, condemned the custom of celebrating "pagans'" festivals and cited, among traditional habits of North Africa, that of observing January Qalandas ("Kalends").^[8]

The months

There are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh (Berber) calendar. The table below also provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to poor communication and manipulation by the government.^{[citation needed]} Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region.

Tab. 2 - The names of the months in various zones of Berber and Arab North Africa

Month	Rif-Tamazight (north Morocco)	Chleuh (south Morocco)	Kabyle (Algeria)	Berber of Djerba (Tunisia)	Tunisian Arabic
January	Yennayer	innayr	(ye)nnayer	yennár	yennayer
February	Yebrayer	xubrayr	furar	furár	fura(ye)r
March	Mares	mars	meghres	mars	mars
April	Yebrir	ibrir	(ye)brir	ibrír	abril
May	May	mayyuh	maggu	mayu	mayu
June	Yunyu	yunyu	yunyu	yunyu	yunyu
July	Yulyuz	yulyuz	yulyu(z)	yulyu	yulyu
August	Ɣuct	ghusht	ghusht	ghusht	aghusht
September	Cutembir (c=sh)	shutanbir	shtember	shtámber	shtamber
October	Ktuber	kṭuber	(k)tuber	ktúber	uktuber
November	Nwambir	duwanbir	nu(ne)mber	numbír	nufember
December	Dujembir	dujanbir	bu- (du-)jember	dujámber	dejember

The "Gates of the Year"

In addition to the subdivision by months, within the traditional agricultural calendar there are other partitions, by "seasons" or by "strong periods", characterized by particular festivals and celebrations. For the key moments of the year, Jean Servier uses the picturesque name of "Gates of the Year" (tibbura usegg^was), even if, by rule, this term seems to be employed only in singular form to denote the Winter Solstice period.^{[citation needed]}

Not all the four seasons have retained a Berber denomination: the words for spring and autumn are used almost everywhere, more sparingly the winter and, among northern Berbers, the Berber name for the autumn has been preserved only in Jebel Nafusa (Libya).

• Spring tafsut (Ar. er-rbiʿ) - Begins on 15 furar (28 February)
• Summer anebdu (Ar. es-sif) - Begins on 17 mayu (30 May)
• Autumn amwal / aməwan^[9] ( (Ar. le-xrif) - Begins on 27 ghusht (30 August)
• Winter tagrest (Ar. esh-shita') - Begins on 16 numbír (29 November)

An interesting element is the existing opposition between two 40-day terms, one representing the allegedly coldest part of winter ("The nights", llyali) and one the hottest period of summer ("The Dog Days", ssmaym, awussu).^[10]
Llyali



A page from a Tunisian calendar, showing the correspondence of 1 Yennayer ʿajmi (in red on bottom) with the 14 January of the Gregorian calendar. The writing on the bottom signals that it is ʿajmi New Year's Day and that al-lyali al-sud ("the black nights") are beginning.

The coldest period is made up by 20 "White nights" (Berber: lyali timellalin, Arabic: al-lyali al-biḍ), from 12 to 31 dujamber (Gregorian dates: 25 December - 13 January), and 20 "black nights" (Berber: lyali tiberkanin, Arabic al-lyali al-sud), beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January.
Yennayer

The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa. A widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region (for example a "couscous with seven vegetables"), but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal (usually a chicken). In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by many people who don't use the Berber calendar in daily life.

A characteristic trait of this festivity, which often blurs with the Islamic Day of Ashura (see below), is the presence, in many regions, of ritual invocations with formulas like bennayu, babiyyanu, bu-ini, etc. Such expressions, according to many scholars, may be the corrupted forms of the ancient bonus annus (happy new year) wishes.

A curious aspect of the Yennayer celebrations concerns the date of New Year's Day. Though once this anniversary fell everywhere on 14 January,^[11] because of a likely mistake introduced by some Berber cultural associations very active in recovering customs on the verge of extinction, at present in a wide part of Algeria it is common opinion that the date of "Berber New Year's Day" is 12 January and not the 14th. This New Years is sometimes known as Moroccan New Years.

Today, the celebration of the Amazigh new year is encouraged for cultural and political reasons. In 2008, Libya officially celebrated the Amazigh new year, though Libyan Amazigh activists claim that Libyan dictator Muammar al-Gaddafi has manipulated its celebration.^{[citation needed]}
Lḥusum/imbarken

Before the cold ends completely and spring begins fully, there is a period of the year that is very feared. It consists of ten days straddling the months of furar and mars (the last five of the former and the first five of the latter), and it is characterised by strong winds. It is said that, during this term, one should suspend many activities (agricultural and artisan), should not marry nor go out during the night, leaving instead full scope to mysterious powers, which in that period are particularly active and celebrate their weddings. Due to a linguistic taboo, in Djerba these creatures are called imbarken, i.e. "the blessed ones", whence this period takes its name.
Ssmaym/Awussu

Like the strong winter cold, the Dog Days also last 40 days, from 12 yulyuz (25 July) to 20 shutanbir (2 September). The apical moment of the period is the first of ghusht "August" (also the name awussu, widespread in Tunisia and Libya, seems to date back to Latin augustus). On this date, particular rites are performed, which manifestly derive from pre-Islamic, and even pre-Christian, traditions. They consist, in particular, of bonfires (which in many locations take place around the summer solstice: a custom already condemned as Pagan by St. Augustine), or water rituals, like those, common in the coastal towns of Tunisia and Tripolitania, that provide to dive in the seawaters for three nights, in order to preserve one's health. In these ceremonies, whole families used to enter the water, bringing with them even their pets. Though the rite has been revisited in an Islamic frame (in those nights, the water of the Zamzam Well, in Mecca, would spill over, and in the sea there would be beneficial sweet water waves), many call this celebration "the nights of the error". It was in fact usual that, in order to achieve fertility and prosperity, men and women copulated among the flucts.
Iweǧǧiben

Another important period for the agricultural calendar is that of the ploughing. In this context, a date considered fundamental is the 17th of (k)tuber, in which one may start ploughing his fields. In Arabic, this period is called ḥertadem, that is "Adam's ploughing", because in that date the common ancestor of humanity is said to have begun his agricultural works.

Influences from the Islamic calendar



Iḍ n innayr

Following centuries-long contacts with the Arab-Islamic culture, the celebrations linked to the Julian calendar have been sometimes integrated into the Islamic calendar, leading to the suppression of some traditional holidays or to the creation of duplicates.

The most evident example are the celebrations for the new year, which in many cases have been transferred to the first Islamic month, i.e. Muḥarram, and more precisely to the ʿĀshūrā’, which falls on the 10th day of that month. This holiday has an important mournful meaning in the Shia Islam, but it is substantially ignored among Sunnis. Many studies have shown the relationships between the joyful celebration of this holiday in North Africa and the ancient New Year's Day celebrations.

Tab. 3 - Correspondencies between Arabic and Berber names of the Islamic months

	Arabic name	Berber name
1	Muḥàrram	babiyannu (Ouargla) ʿashura' (Djerba)
2	Sàfar	u deffer ʿashura'
3	Rabiʿ al-awwal	elmilud
4	Rabiʿ al-thani	u deffer elmilud
5	Jumada al-awwal	melghes (Djerba)
6	Jumada al-thani	asgenfu n twessarin "the rest (the waiting) of the old women" (Ouargla) sh-shaher n Fadma (Djerba)
7	Rajab	twessarin "the old women"
8	shaʿaban	asgenfu n remdan "the rest (the waiting) of Ramadan" (Ouargla)
9	Ramadan	sh-shaher n uzum' "the month of the fasting" (Djerba)
10	Shawwal	tfaska tameshkunt "the little holiday" (Djerba)
11	dhu al-qaʿida	u jar-asneth "that between the two (holidays)" (Djerba)
12	Dhu al-Hijjah	tfaska tameqqart "the big holiday" (Djerba)

The Tuareg calendar




The she-camel constellation (Ursa Major plus Arcturus), whose appearance int the sky marks the beginning of the Tuareg astronomical year

Tuaregs share many elements with northern Berbers concerning the subdivision of the year. Even they make reference to two different cycles, a solar one similar to the Julian calendar and a lunar one for religious purposes.

However the climatic, biological and socio-cultural differences between the desert and more temperate territories create some differences, especially in the subdivision of seasons.

The computation of the years

The traditional Berber calendar was not linked to an era with respect to which years were calculated. Where traditional ways to compute the years have been preserved (Tuareg civilization), years are not expressed with numbers but each of them has a name characterizing it.

Starting from the 1960s, however, on the initiative of the Académie Berbère of Paris, some Berbers have begun computing the years starting from 950 BC, the approximate date of the rising into power of the first Libyan Pharaoh in Egypt, Shoshenq I, whom they identified as the first prominent Berber in history (he is recorded as being of Libyan origin).^[12] For example, the Gregorian year 2010 corresponds to the year 2960 of the Berber calendar.

This innovation has been adopted with conviction by many supporters of the Berber culture and is now a part of the cultural heritage of this people, fully integrated in the system of traditional customs related the North-African calendar.^{[citation needed]}



Photo taken on 31 December 2007 near Tafraout (Morocco), with the writings aseggas ameggaz ("good year") in Tifinagh and bonne année 2959 ("good year 2959") in French. Note the 1-year mistake, as 2959 corresponds to the Gregorian year 2009.

Neologisms and false traditions

An interesting aspect from the anthropological point of view, concerning the birth of traditions, is the flourish of innovations that "restore" alleged forgotten customs. This phenomenon exists in the context of the rediscovery of a long-denied and hidden identity and is aimed at regaining a lost or endangered heritage. The calendar, perceived as particularly important due to its connection to the control of time, has been the object of many of these innovations, some of which have gained consensus and been adopted as a genuine part of Berber traditional heritage. Examples follow.

The Names of the Months

Since the names of the months used in pre-Roman era are unknown (those shown in Table 1 are known only in the academic community), some tried to reconstruct "authentically Berber" names. Beginning with the most known name, yennayer, some have considered it a Berber word composed of yan (the numeral "one" in various Berber dialects) and (a)yur, "moon/month", and on this basis reconstructed the other month names: 1. yenyur or yennayur, 2. sinyur, 3. krayur, 4. kuzyur, 5. semyur, 6. sedyur, 7. sayur, 8. tamyur, 9. tzayur 10. mrayur, 11. yamrayur 12. megyur.

Tab. 4 - The "Berber" week

Day	Académie Berbère	Compounds with numerals
Monday	aram	aynas
Tuesday	arim	asinas
Wednesday	ahad	akras
Thursday	amhad	akwas
Friday	sem	asemwas
Saturday	sed	asedyas
Sunday	acer	asamas

The weekdays

Even for the weekdays, the ancient native names are unknown, so some tried to "fill in the blanks" with new terms. Two series of them are currently widespread. The first and best known is of unclear origin, but probably dates to the circle of the Académie Berbère of Paris in the late 1960s; the second one simply repeats for the weekdays the same process used for the months, with the creation of a suffix -as ("day") in place of -yur.^[13] The former series, which begins with Monday^[14] and refers to the "European" denominations, is not prone to misunderstandings, while the latter, which refers to a numerical order of the days (beginning, too, with Monday), interferes with the Arabic system currently in use, which starts instead from Sunday, resulting sometimes with the new names being used to refer to different days.^[15]

Days and people names

Often, calendars and almanacs published by Berber militants and cultural circles associate a personal name to each day of the year, in imitation of Western calendars. This also meets the need to reappropriate the traditional proper names, which the Arabization measures in Algeria and Morocco tend to substitute with strictly Arabic ones. Even in this field, it is not uncommon to find improvised lists of names, with nouns collected at random, as a result of casual readings and sometimes even of mistakes or typos.^{[citation needed]}



Three Berber calendars. Among other things, it may be noticed that the names of the weekdays are different between the bottom-right calendar and the leftmost one. Even the month names have the traditional ones on the right and the new ones on the left. All of them refer to the Shoshenq era (Gregorian + 950).

See also

• Shoshenq
• Ancient Libya

Notes

1. On this argument, see e.g.: Encyclopédie Berbère 11, p. 1713, Servier (1985: 365 ss.), Genevois (1975: 3 ss.).
2. Mughal, Muhammad Aurang Zeb. 2012. Tunisia. Steven Danver (ed.), Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures, and Contemporary Issues, Vol. 3. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, pp. 688-689.
3. Jean Delheure, Vivre et mourir à Ouargla - Tameddurt t-tmettant Wargren, Paris, SELAF, 1988, p. 128-129.
4. Quote from Barrios García (1997: 53), original in Spanish; English text in Barrios García (1995: 4).
5. (See J. Barrios García 1995 and 1997)
6. See, e.g. Barrios García (2007: 331 and passim)
7. Servier, 1962
8. Idris, 1954
9. amwal is the form found in Jebel Nafusa (Jadu); aməwan is the corresponding word in tuareg. Cp. V. Brugnatelli, "Notes d’onomastique jerbienne et mozabite", in K. Naït-Zerrad, R. Voßen, D. Ibriszimow (éd.), Nouvelles études berbères. Le verbe et autres articles. Actes du "2. Bayreuth-Frankfurter Kolloquium zur Berberologie 2002", Köln, R. Köppe Verlag, 2004, pp. 29-39, in particular p. 33.
10. On this topic, see e.g. chapter "Llyali et Ssmaym" in Genevois (1975, pp. 21-22)
11. In fact, as remarked by Genevois (1975: 11), "the agricultural calendar (ancient Julian calendar) has therefore at present a 13-day delay".
12. Benbrahim, Malha. "La fête de Yennayer: pratiques et présages" (in French). Tamazight.fr. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
13. On this topic, see Achab (1995: 270), who points out how this procedure was proposed on the first number of the magazine Tifawt (April–May 1994), by Hsin Hda.
14. At least, in the calendars adopting this series, the order usually appears with Monday being the first day. Moreover, the names sem ("Friday") and sed ("Saturday") respectively contain abbreviations of the Berber numerals semmus, "5" and sedis, "6", which supports the previous assertion.
15. An example of such confusion among the very supporters of these neologisms: in Lahcen Oulhaj, Grammaire du tamazight: eléments pour une standardisation, Rabat, Centre Tarik ibn Zyad pour les études et la recherche, 2000, p. 151, the weekdays are presented in the "European" order: aynas, the "Day One", is put in correspondence with Monday and asamas ("Day Seven") with Sunday. Yet, in a sentence of the text (p. 113) one reads "Teddu s timzgida as n asedyas! 'Il faut aller à la mosquée le vendredi!'", with asedyas ("Day Six") corresponding to Friday (as in the "Arab" order), and not to Saturday as in the summary table of p. 151. The enumeration beginning from Monday seems to be the original, according to Achab (1995: 270); an example of use starting from Sunday (from Moroccan magazine Tifinagh of 1995) can be seen in the picture showing various Berber calendars, at the end of this article.

References

• "Calendrier" [Calendar]. Encyclopédie Berbère (in French) 11. Aix-en-Provence: Editions Edisud. 1992. pp. 1713–1719. ISBN 9782857445814.
• "Il calendario degli uomini liberi", Africa, Epicentro (Ferrara), year V, no. 16 (January/February 2000), pp. 30–33 (in attachment: a Berber calendar for 2000)
• Achab, Ramdane (1996). La néologie lexicale berbère: 1945-1995. M.S. — Ussun amazigh (in French) 9. Paris - Louvain: Peeters Publishers. ISBN 9068318101.
• José Barrios García, "Tara: A Study on the Canarian Astronomical Pictures. Part I. Towards an interpretation of the Gáldar Painted Cave", in: F. Stanescu (ed.) Proceedings of the III SEAC Conference, Sibiu (Romania), 1–3 September 1995, Sibiu, Lucian Blaga University from Sibiu, 1999, 15 pp. - ISBN 973-651-033-6
• José Barrios García, "Tara: A Study on the Canarian Astronomical Pictures. Part II. The acano chessboard", in: C. Jaschek & F. Atrio Barandelas (eds.). Proceedings of the IV SEAC Meeting "Astronomy and Culture" (Salamanca, 2-6 Sep. 1996), Salamanca, Universidad de Salamanca, 1997, pp. 47–54 - ISBN 84-605-6954-3
• José Barrios García, "Investigaciones sobre matemáticas y astronomía guanche. Parte III. El calendario", in: Francisco Morales Padrón (Coordinador), XVI Coloquio de historia canarioamericana (2004), Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Cabildo de Gran Canaria - Casa de Colón, 2006 ISBN 84-8103-407-X, pp. 329–344.
• Nico van den Boogert, "The Names of the Months in Medieval Berber", in: K. Naït-Zerrad (ed.), Articles de linguistique berbère. Mémorial Vycichl, Parigi 2002, pp. 137–152 - ISBN 2-7475-2706-9
• Saïd Bouterfa, Yannayer - Taburt u swgas, ou le symbole de Janus, Alger, El-Musk, 2002 - ISBN 9961-928-04-0
• Gioia Chiauzzi, Cicli calendariali nel Magreb, 2 vols., Naples (Istituto Universitario Orientale), 1988
• Jeannine Drouin, "Calendriers berbères", in: S. Chaker & A. Zaborski (eds.), Études berbères et chamito-sémitiques. Mélanges offerts à K.-G. Prasse, Paris-Louvain, Peeters, 2000, ISBN 90-429-0826-2, pp. 113–128
• Henri Genevois, Le calendrier agraire et sa composition, "Le Fichier Périodique" no. 125, 1975
• Henri Genevois, Le rituel agraire, "Le Fichier Périodique" 127, 1975, pp. 1–48
• Mohand Akli Haddadou, Almanach berbère - assegwes Imazighen, Algiers (Editions INAS) 2002 - ISBN 9961-762-05-3
• H. R. Idris, "Fêtes chrétiennes célébrées en Ifrîqiya à l'époque ziride", in Revue Africaine 98 (1954), pp. 261–276
• Emile Laoust, Mots et choses berbères, Paris 1920
• Umberto Paradisi, "I tre giorni di Awussu a Zuara (Tripolitania)", AION n.s. 14 (1964), pp. 415–9
• Serra, Luigi (1990). "Awussu". Encyclopédie Berbère (in French) 8. Aix-en-Provence: Editions Edisud. pp. 1198–1200. ISBN 9782857444619.
• Jean Servier, Les portes de l'Année. Rites et symboles. L'Algérie dans la tradition méditerranéenne, Paris, R. Laffont, 1962 (new edition: Monaco, Le Rocher, 1985 ISBN 2268003698)

External links

• (French) An article on the Berber calendar
• (French) An article about traditional customs in Berber New Year's Day
• (French) A page with a "Berber zodiac", a modern creation based upon traditional elements
• (Spanish) An essays on the calendars used by Guanches of Canaries (pdf)
• Number Systems and Calendars of the Berber Populations of Grand Canaray and Tenerife, by Jose Barrios Garca

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_calendar

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moved into the calendar calibration section